Abstract
This chapter sets the scene for analyses in Chaps. 4 and 5 by tracing the roots, rationales and evolution of the EU’s pre-Uprisings external relations in its Southern Neighbourhood. The chapter then examines the discursive structure of EU policies in the run-up to 2010–11 in three key areas: democracy, development and delivery. Key pre-Uprisings EU documents describe democracy in ‘procedural’ terms (elections, civil-political rights) and as defending the rights of women and minorities but pay scant attention to ‘difficult’ civil-political rights (association, protest) or to socioeconomic rights. Pre-Uprisings policy also aims for ‘sustainable and inclusive growth’ through economic liberalisation. Finally, conditionality is the EU’s main instrument for leveraging progress on human rights and democracy, making access to the Common Market conditional on delivery of progress in these areas. While pre-Uprisings delivery was framed in terms of both ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ conditionality, in practice these levers were used exceedingly rarely.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Although in policy and other documents in the 2000s the EU refers to ‘Mediterranean Partners’, we use ‘Southern Partners’ to make clear that we are focusing on those Southern Mediterranean countries that are partners under the European Neighbourhood Policy except where we are referring to policies other than the ENP which have a wider remit. In particular we focus on Egypt, Jordan, Morocco and Tunisia, the four Arab countries that have developed the closest relationship with the EU.
- 2.
The European Union was formed in 1993 and incorporated the European Economic Community, which was renamed ‘the European Community’.
- 3.
The EU replaced the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1993.
- 4.
With the breakup of the USSR in 1990, Russia had little influence in the region until the 2000s. The USA became the dominant power.
- 5.
Syria was subject to EU sanctions from 1987 to 1994 because of its involvement in terrorist activities, but this was mostly symbolic, as it allowed existing contracts to be honoured (Leenders 2014). Libya, too, was subject to sanctions from 1986 to 2004, but until the 2000s it showed no interest in cooperation agreements with the EU.
- 6.
Algeria, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Malta, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, the Palestinian Authority (PA). Cyprus and Malta acceded to membership of the EU in 2003 and Turkey remained a candidate country.
- 7.
Israel (signed November 1995, ratified June 2000), Tunisia (signed July 1995, ratified March 1998), Morocco (signed February 1996, ratified March 2000), Jordan (signed November 1997, ratified May 2002), Egypt (signed June 2001, ratified January 2004), Algeria (signed April 2002, ratified September 2005) and Lebanon (signed June 2002, ratified April 2006). The AA with Syria was initiated in December 2008.
- 8.
Summary of legislation relating to AAs: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Ar14104.
- 9.
Cyprus and Malta became EU Member States, and as a candidate country Turkey’s relation with Europe was handled under other policy instruments. Libya continued to have only observer status.
- 10.
The UfM has a wider membership than the ENP and includes Albania, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Monaco, Montenegro, Morocco, Palestine, Syria (suspended), Tunisia and Turkey. Libya was an observer and the Arab Union was granted observer status.
References
Barnes-Dacey J (2009) Syria Stalls on Signing Trade Deal with EU. The Wall Street Journal. Washington, DC. Available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB125859658364454893.
Bicchi F (2009) Democracy Assistance in the Mediterranean: An Overview. Mediterranean Politics 14(1): 61–78. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629390902747459.
Collier D and Levitsky S (1997) Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research. World Politics 49(3): 430–451. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25054009?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents (accessed 27 June 2016).
Dokos T (1997) Security Problems in the Mediterranean. Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy. Available at: https://www.eliamep.gr/wp-content/uploads/en/2008/10/dokos-op974.pdf.
European Commission (1994) Establishing a Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. COM(94) 427 final. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities. Available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/2950/1/2950.pdf.
European Commission (1995a) Barcelona Declaration. Barcelona: European Commission. Available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/euromed/docs/bd_en.pdf.
European Commission (1995b) Human Rights. Bulletin of the European Union 5: 9–11. Available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/83937/1/BUL376.pdf.
European Commission (2000) European Initiative for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) (2000–2006). Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=LEGISSUM:r10110&from=EN%0D.
European Commission (2001) The European Union’s Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratisation in Third Countries. COM(2001) 252 final. COM(2001) 252 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/committees/afet/20020225/doc08_en.pdf.
European Commission (2002) Trade and Development Assisting Developing Countries to Benefit from Trade. COM(2002) 513 final. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities. Available at: aei.pitt.edu/37710/1/COM_(2002)_513_final.pdf.
European Commission (2003a) Paving the Way for a New Neighbourhood Instrument. COM (2003) 393 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/communic/wider/wider_en.pdf.
European Commission (2003b) Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners. COM(2003) 294 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: aei.pitt.edu/38142/1/COM_(2003)_294.pdf.
European Commission (2003c) Wider Europe-Neighbourhood: A New Framework for Relations with Our Eastern and Southern Neighbours. COM(2003) 104 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/enp/pdf/pdf/com03_104_en.pdf.
European Commission (2004) European Neighbourhood Policy: Strategy Paper. COM(2004) 373 final. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities. Available at: http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:European+Neighbourhood+Policy+STRATEGY+PAPER#0%5Cnhttp://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:European+neighbourhood+policy:+strategy+paper%230.
European Commission (2005) 10th Anniversary Euro-Mediterranean Summit Barcelona, 27 and 28 November 2005 Chairman’s Statement. C/05/326. Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_PRES-05-326_en.htm (accessed 2 January 2019).
European Commission (2006a) On Strengthening the European Neighbourhood Policy COM(2006) 726 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://www.ab.gov.tr/files/ardb/evt/1_avrupa_birligi/1_9_komsuluk_politikalari/Strengthening_The_European_Neighbourhood_Policy_4_12_2006.pdf.
European Commission (2006b) Programming Guide for Strategy Papers: Democracy and Human Rights. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/programming-guide-strategy-papers-democracy-human-rights-200607_en_2.pdf.
European Commission (2007a) European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) Strategy Paper 2007–2010. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/sites/devco/files/thematic-strategy-paper-eidhr-2007_en_1.pdf.
European Commission (2007b) European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI): Regional Strategy Paper (2007–2013) and Regional Programme (2007–2010). Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/search?source=hp&ei=jJQoXM7DAcWKapuJnNgG&q=European+Commission+%282007%29+European+Union+Southern+Regional+Strategy+Paper+2007-2013+European+Neighbourhood+and+Partnership+Instrument&btnK=Google+Search&oq=European+Commission+%28200.
European Commission (2010a) Principles for the Implementation of a Governance Facility under ENPI. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://library.euneighbours.eu/content/principles-implementation-governance-facility-under-enpi.
European Commission (2010b) Taking Stock of the European Neighbourhood Policy. COM(2010) 207. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2009_2014/documents/depa/dv/depa_20100610_04_/depa_20100610_04_en.pdf.
European Commission (2011a) A New Response to a Changing Neighbourhood: A Review of European Neighbourhood Policy. COM(2011) 303 final. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://eeas.europa.eu/enp/pdf/pdf/com_11_303_en.pdf.
European Commission (2011b) A Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity with the Southern Mediterranean. COM(2011) 200. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/policy/com_2011_200_en.pdf%0D.
European Commission (2013) Evaluation of Programme Support for Improvement in Governance and Management (SIGMA) for European Neighbourhood Region (2008–2013). Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/evaluation-programme-support-improvement-governance-and-management-sigma-european-neighbourhood_en.
European Communities (2007) Treaty of Lisbon: Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community. Official Journal of the European Union 306(1): 1–271. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A12007L%2FTXT.
European Community (1980) Venice Declaration. Brussels: European Community. Available at: http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/mepp/docs/venice_declaration_1980_en.pdf.
European Council (1996) Council Regulation No 1488/96 of 23 July 1996 on Financial and Technical Measures to Accompany (MEDA) the Reform of Economic and Social Structures in the Framework of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. Official Journal of the European Community L 189: 1–16. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A31996R1488.
European Council (2000) Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. Official Journal of the European Communities 364(1): 1–22. Available at: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf.
European Council (2003) European Security Strategy—A Secure Europe in a Better World. Brussels: European Union. Available at: https://europa.eu/globalstrategy/en/european-security-strategy-secure-europe-better-world%0D.
European Council (2006) IPA Regulation No 1638/2006 2006 Laying Down General Provisions Establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument. Official Journal of the European Union L 310/1. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32006R1638&from=EN.
European Council (2008) Joint Declaration of the Paris Summit for the Mediterranean. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/research/iscp/pdf/policy/paris_declaration.pdf.
European Council and European Commission (2009) Council Conclusions on Democracy Support in the EU’s External Relations. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/gena/111250.pdf.
European Council, European Parliament, European Commission, et al. (2006) The European Consensus on Development. Official Journal of the European Union C 46(April). Brussels: European Commission. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=LEGISSUM%3Ar12544.
European Economic and Social Committee (2010) Trade, Growth and World Affairs: Trade Policy as a Core Component of the EU’s 2020 Strategy’. COM(2010) 612 final. Official Journal of the European Union 43(17): 73–78. Available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011AE1866&from=EN.
Industry for E-MM (2004) Euro-Mediterranean Charter for Enterprise. Brussels: European Commission. Available at: http://archives.dimed.gouv.fr/sites/dimed.gouv.fr/files/charte_euro-mediterraneenne_pour_les_entreprises.pdf.
Khader B (2013) The European Union and the Arab World: From the Rome Treaty to the Arab Spring. Barcelona: European Institute of the Mediterranean. Available at: https://www.iemed.org/publicacions-en/historic-de-publicacions/papersiemed-euromesco/the-european-union-and-the-arab-world-from-the-rome-treaty-to-the-arab-spring.
Lavenex S and Schimmelfennig F (2011) EU Democracy Promotion in the Neighbourhood: From Leverage to Governance. Democratization 18(4): 885–909. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13510347.2011.584730.
Leenders L (2014) EU Sanctions: A Relevant Foreign Policy Tool? EU Diplomacy Paper 03. Bruges and Natolin: College of Europe. Available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/58678/.
Miller R (2014) The Euro-Arab Dialogue and the Limits of European External Intervention in the Middle East, 1974–77. Middle Eastern Studies 50(6): 936–959. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00263206.2014.933421.
Pace M (2007) Norm Shifting from EMP to ENP: The EU as a Norm Entrepreneur in the South? Cambridge Review of International Affairs 20(4): 659–675. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09557570701680704 (accessed 17 August 2016).
Prodi R (2002) A Wider Europe—A Proximity Policy as the Key to Stability, Peace, Security and Stability. SPEECH/02/169. In: Sixth ECSA-World Conference, Brussels, 2002. Available at: https://www.google.co.uk/search?biw=1920&bih=967&ei=vo_GXPvXDdif1fAP6dihIA&q=Romano+Prodi+President+of+the+European+Commission%2C+A+Wider+Europe+-+A+Proximity+Policy+as+the+key+to+stability%2C&oq=Romano+Prodi+President+of+the+European+Commission%2C+A+Wide.
Robinson JA (2006) Economic Development and Democracy. Annual Review of political Science 56(1): 503–527. Available at: http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.092704.171256.
Schenker D (2008) The EU and Syria Move Closer. Available at: https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/the-eu-and-syria-move-closer (accessed 29 August 2019).
Schlumberger O (2011) The Ties That Do Not Bind: The Union for the Mediterranean and the Future of Euro-Arab Relations. Mediterranean Politics 16(1): 135–153. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629395.2011.547401.
Teti A (2012) The EU’s First Response to the ‘Arab Spring’: A Critical Discourse Analysis of the Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity. Mediterranean Politics 17(3): 266–284. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13629395.2012.725297.
Teti A (2015) Democracy Without Social Justice: Marginalization of Social and Economic Rights in EU Democracy Assistance Policy after the Arab Uprisings. Middle East Critique 24(1): 9–25. Routledge. Available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19436149.2014.1000076 (accessed 16 August 2016).
Tsoukalis L (1977) The EEC and the Mediterranean: Is ‘Global’ Policy a Misnomer? International Affaires 53(3): 422–438. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/2615313.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A84c3e7459bf429ebb1fac80780aca714.
Wesselink E and Boschma R (2017) European Neighbourhood Policy: History, Structure, and Implemented Policy Measures. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 108(1): 4–20. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/tesg.12207.
Whitman RG and Juncos AE (2011) Relations with the Wider Europe. Journal of Common Market Studies 49: 187–208. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-5965.2011.02189.x.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Teti, A., Abbott, P., Talbot, V., Maggiolini, P. (2020). The EU’s Neighbourhood Policy Before the Arab Uprisings: Rhetoric Versus Reality. In: Democratisation against Democracy. The European Union in International Affairs. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33883-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33883-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-33882-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-33883-1
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)