Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport pp 71–84Cite as

Exercise and the GH-IGF-I Axis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Contemporary Endocrinology ((COE))

Abstract

The effectiveness of physical (exercise) training depends on the training load and on the individual’s ability to tolerate it, and an imbalance between the two may lead to under- or overtraining. Therefore, many efforts have been made to find objective parameters to quantify the balance between training load and the athlete’s ability to tolerate it. One of the unique features of exercise is that it leads to a simultaneous increase of antagonistic mediators. On the one hand, exercise stimulates anabolic components of the growth hormone (GH) insulin like growth factor-I (IGF-I) axis. On the other hand, exercise elevates catabolic pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6). The very fine balance between the anabolic and inflammatory/catabolic response to exercise will determine the effectiveness of exercise training and the health consequences of exercise. In this chapter we review the changes in the anabolic-catabolic hormonal balance and demonstrate their usage by athletes and/or their coaches to gauge training and preparation for competition. We also discuss recent advances in the use of hormonal genetic polymorphisms of the GH-IGF-I system as an additional assisting tool for talent identification and sports selection and perhaps also for building effective (i.e., more precise) training programs for athletes.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Krebs JM, Schneider VS, Evans H, Kuo MC, LeBlanc AD. Energy absorption, lean body mass, and total body fat changes during 5 weeks of continuous bed rest. Aviat Space Environ Med. 1990;61(4):314–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Theintz GE, Howald H, Weiss U, Sizonenko PC. Evidence for a reduction of growth potential in adolescent female gymnasts. J Pediatr. 1993;122(2):306–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Urhausen A, Kindermann W. The endocrine system in overtraining. In: Warren MP, Constantini NW, editors. Sports endocrinology. New Jersey: Humana Press; 2000. p. 347–70.

    Google Scholar 

  4. LeRoith D, Roberts CT Jr. Insulin-like growth factors and their receptors in normal physiology and pathological states. J Pediatr Endocrinol. 1993;6(3–4):251–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Eliakim A, Nemet D, Cooper DM. Exercise, training and the GH-->IGF-I axis. In: Kraemer WJ, Rogol AD, editors. The endocrine system in sports and exercise. The Encyclopaedia of sports medicine. 11. 1st ed. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell; 2005. p. 165–79.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  6. Nemet D, Rose-Gottron CM, Mills PJ, Cooper DM. Effect of water polo practice on cytokines, growth mediators, and leukocytes in girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35(2):356–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Nemet D, Oh Y, Kim HS, Hill M, Cooper DM. Effect of intense exercise on inflammatory cytokines and growth mediators in adolescent boys. Pediatrics. 2002;110(4):681–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Leung DW, Spencer SA, Cachianes G, Hammonds RG, Collins C, Henzel WJ, et al. Growth hormone receptor and serum binding protein: purification, cloning and expression. Nature. 1987;330(6148):537–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Berelowitz M, Szabo M, Frohman LA, Firestone S, Chu L, Hintz RL. Somatomedin-C mediates growth hormone negative feedback by effects on both the hypothalamus and the pituitary. Science. 1981;212(4500):1279–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Rajaram S, Baylink DJ, Mohan S. Insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins in serum and other biological fluids: regulation and functions. Endocr Rev. 1997;18(6):801–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Clark RG, Jansson JO, Isaksson O, Robinson IC. Intravenous growth hormone: growth responses to patterned infusions in hypophysectomized rats. J Endocrinol. 1985;104(1):53–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Mauras N, Blizzard RM, Link K, Johnson ML, Rogol AD, Veldhuis JD. Augmentation of growth hormone secretion during puberty: evidence for a pulse amplitude-modulated phenomenon. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987;64(3):596–601.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Corpas E, Harman SM, Blackman MR. Human growth hormone and human aging. Endocr Rev. 1993;14(1):20–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Merimee TJ, Zapf J, Froesch ER. Insulin-like growth factors in the fed and fasted states. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982;55(5):999–1002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Makimura H, Stanley TL, Sun N, Hrovat MI, Systrom DM, Grinspoon SK. The association of growth hormone parameters with skeletal muscle phosphocreatine recovery in adult men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(3):817–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Vendelbo MH, Jorgensen JO, Pedersen SB, Gormsen LC, Lund S, Schmitz O, et al. Exercise and fasting activate growth hormone-dependent myocellular signal transducer and activator of transcription-5b phosphorylation and insulin-like growth factor-I messenger ribonucleic acid expression in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95(9):E64–E8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Buckler JM. Exercise as a screening test for growth hormone release. Acta Endocrinol. 1972;69(2):219–29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Sauro LM, Kanaley JA. The effect of exercise duration and mode on the growth hormone responses in young women on oral contraceptives. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;90(1–2):69–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Schwarz AJ, Brasel JA, Hintz RL, Mohan S, Cooper DM. Acute effect of brief low- and high-intensity exercise on circulating insulin-like growth factor (IGF) I, II, and IGF-binding protein-3 and its proteolysis in young healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81(10):3492–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Eliakim A, Brasel JA, Cooper DM. GH response to exercise: assessment of the pituitary refractory period, and relationship with circulating components of the GH-IGF-I axis in adolescent females. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 1999;12(1):47–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Cappon J, Brasel JA, Mohan S, Cooper DM. Effect of brief exercise on circulating insulin-like growth factor I. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(6):2490–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Ronsen O, Haug E, Pedersen BK, Bahr R. Increased neuroendocrine response to a repeated bout of endurance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(4):568–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kanaley JA, Weltman JY, Veldhuis JD, Rogol AD, Hartman ML, Weltman A. Human growth hormone response to repeated bouts of aerobic exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1997;83(5):1756–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Stokes KA, Sykes D, Gilbert KL, Chen JW, Frystyk J. Brief, high intensity exercise alters serum ghrelin and growth hormone concentrations but not IGF-I, IGF-II or IGF-I bioactivity. Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2010;20(4):289–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Headley SA, Henry K, Nindl BC, Thompson BA, Kraemer WJ, Jones MT. Effects of lifting tempo on one repetition maximum and hormonal responses to a bench press protocol. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(2):406–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kubukeli ZN, Noakes TD, Dennis SC. Training techniques to improve endurance exercise performances. Sports Med. 2002;32(8):489–509.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Meckel Y, Nemet D, Bar-Sela S, Radom-Aizik S, Cooper DM, Sagiv M, et al. Hormonal and inflammatory responses to different types of sprint interval training. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(8):2161–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Meckel Y, Eliakim A, Seraev M, Zaldivar F, Cooper DM, Sagiv M, et al. The effect of a brief sprint interval exercise on growth factors and inflammatory mediators. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(1):225–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pedersen BK, Steensberg A, Fischer C, Keller C, Ostrowski K, Schjerling P. Exercise and cytokines with particular focus on muscle-derived IL-6. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2001;7:18–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Eliakim A, Oh Y, Cooper DM. Effect of single wrist exercise on fibroblast growth factor-2, insulin-like growth factor, and growth hormone. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2000;279(2):R548–R53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Nemet D, Hong S, Mills PJ, Ziegler MG, Hill M, Cooper DM. Systemic vs. local cytokine and leukocyte responses to unilateral wrist flexion exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93(2):546–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Falk B, Eliakim A. Endocrine response to resistance training in children. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2014;26(4):404–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Nindl BC, Hymer WC, Deaver DR, Kraemer WJ. Growth hormone pulsatility profile characteristics following acute heavy resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2001;91(1):163–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Eliakim A, Portal S, Zadik Z, Rabinowitz J, dler-Portal D, Cooper DM, et al. The effect of a volleyball practice on anabolic hormones and inflammatory markers in elite male and female adolescent players. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(5):1553–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Nemet D, Portal S, Zadik Z, Pilz-Burstein R, Adler-Portal D, Meckel Y, et al. Training increases anabolic response and reduces inflammatory response to a single practice in elite male adolescent volleyball players. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2012;25(9–10):875–80.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Eliakim A, Portal S, Zadik Z, Meckel Y, Nemet D. Training reduces catabolic and inflammatory response to a single practice in female volleyball players. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(11):3110–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Kumari M, Tabassum F, Clark C, Strachan D, Stansfeld S, Power C. Social differences in insulin-like growth factor-1: findings from a British birth cohort. Ann Epidemiol. 2008;18(8):664–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Bogin B, Hermanussen M, Blum WF, Assmann C. Sex, sport, IGF-1 and the community effect in height hypothesis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(5):4816–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Eliakim A, Cooper DM, Nemet D. The GH-IGF-I response to typical field sports practices in adolescent athletes: a summary. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2014;26(4):428–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Barnett A. Using recovery modalities between training sessions in elite athletes: does it help? Sports Med. 2006;36(9):781–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wilcock IM, Cronin JB, Hing WA. Physiological response to water immersion: a method for sport recovery? Sports Med. 2006;36(9):747–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Nemet D, Meckel Y, Bar-Sela S, Zaldivar F, Cooper DM, Eliakim A. Effect of local cold-pack application on systemic anabolic and inflammatory response to sprint-interval training: a prospective comparative trial. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(4):411–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Collier SR, Casey DP, Kanaley JA. Growth hormone responses to varying doses of oral arginine. Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2005;15(2):136–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Collier SR, Collins E, Kanaley JA. Oral arginine attenuates the growth hormone response to resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2006;101(3):848–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Galassetti P, Larson J, Iwanaga K, Salsberg SL, Eliakim A, Pontello A. Effect of a high-fat meal on the growth hormone response to exercise in children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2006;19(6):777–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Cappon JP, Ipp E, Brasel JA, Cooper DM. Acute effects of high fat and high glucose meals on the growth hormone response to exercise. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;76(6):1418–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Foster EB, Fisher G, Sartin JL, Elsasser TH, Wu G, Cowan W, et al. Acute regulation of IGF-I by alterations in post-exercise macronutrients. Amino Acids. 2011;42:1405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Willoughby DS, Stout JR, Wilborn CD. Effects of resistance training and protein plus amino acid supplementation on muscle anabolism, mass, and strength. Amino Acids. 2007;32(4):467–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Ballard TL, Clapper JA, Specker BL, Binkley TL, Vukovich MD. Effect of protein supplementation during a 6-mo strength and conditioning program on insulin-like growth factor I and markers of bone turnover in young adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81(6):1442–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Eliakim A, Beyth Y. Exercise training, menstrual irregularities and bone development in children and adolescents. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2003;16(4):201–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Ignacio DL, da SSDH, Cavalcanti-de-Albuquerque JP, Louzada RA, Carvalho DP, Werneck-de-Castro JP. Thyroid hormone and estrogen regulate exercise-induced growth hormone release. PLoS One. 2015;10(4):e0122556.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Warren MP, Chua AT. Exercise-induced amenorrhea and bone health in the adolescent athlete. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2008;1135:244–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Vanheest JL, Rodgers CD, Mahoney CE, De Souza MJ. Ovarian suppression impairs sport performance in junior elite female swimmers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(1):156–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Pons V, Riera J, Capo X, Martorell M, Sureda A, Tur JA, et al. Calorie restriction regime enhances physical performance of trained athletes. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15:12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Eliakim A, Nemet D, Bar-Sela S, Higer Y, Falk B. Changes in circulating IGF-I and their correlation with self-assessment and fitness among elite athletes. Int J Sports Med. 2002;23(8):600–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Nemet D, Pontello AM, Rose-Gottron C, Cooper DM. Cytokines and growth factors during and after a wrestling season in adolescent boys. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(5):794–800.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Steinacker JM, Lormes W, Kellmann M, Liu Y, Reissnecker S, Opitz-Gress A, et al. Training of junior rowers before world championships. Effects on performance, mood state and selected hormonal and metabolic responses. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2000;40(4):327–35.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mejri S, Bchir F, Ben Rayana MC, Ben HJ, Ben SC. Effect of training on GH and IGF-1 responses to a submaximal exercise in football players. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;95(5–6):496–503.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Roemmich JN, Sinning WE. Weight loss and wrestling training: effects on growth-related hormones. J Appl Physiol. 1997;82(6):1760–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Jurimae J, Cicchella A, Jurimae T, Latt E, Haljaste K, Purge P, et al. Regular physical activity influences plasma ghrelin concentration in adolescent girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(10):1736–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Plinta R, Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M, Drosdzol-Cop A, Chudek J, Skrzypulec-Plinta V. The effect of three-month pre-season preparatory period and short-term exercise on plasma leptin, adiponectin, visfatin, and ghrelin levels in young female handball and basketball players. J Endocrinol Investig. 2012;35(6):595–601.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Eliakim A, Brasel JA, Mohan S, Barstow TJ, Berman N, Cooper DM. Physical fitness, endurance training, and the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor I system in adolescent females. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81(11):3986–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Eliakim A, Brasel JA, Mohan S, Wong WL, Cooper DM. Increased physical activity and the growth hormone-IGF-I axis in adolescent males. Am J Phys. 1998;275(1 Pt 2):R308–R14.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Eliakim A, Scheett TP, Newcomb R, Mohan S, Cooper DM. Fitness, training, and the growth hormone-->insulin-like growth factor I axis in prepubertal girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(6):2797–802.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Scheett TP, Nemet D, Stoppani J, Maresh CM, Newcomb R, Cooper DM. The effect of endurance-type exercise training on growth mediators and inflammatory cytokines in pre-pubertal and early pubertal males. Pediatr Res. 2002;52(4):491–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Greig CA, Hameed M, Young A, Goldspink G, Noble B. Skeletal muscle IGF-I isoform expression in healthy women after isometric exercise. Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2006;16(5–6):373–6.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Zanconato S, Moromisato DY, Moromisato MY, Woods J, Brasel JA, LeRoith D, et al. Effect of training and growth hormone suppression on insulin-like growth factor I mRNA in young rats. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(5):2204–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Izquierdo M, Ibanez J, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen K, et al. Detraining and tapering effects on hormonal responses and strength performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(3):768–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Krych-Garsztka K, Mizgajska-Wiktor H, Goździcka-Józefiak A. An analysis of the regulatory region of the IGF1 gene in professional athletes in youth sports teams. Hum Mov. 2011;12(3):216.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Ben-Zaken S, Meckel Y, Nemet D, Eliakim A. Can IGF-I polymorphism affect power and endurance athletic performance? Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2013;23(5):175–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Ben-Zaken S, Malach S, MeckeL Y, Nemet D, Eliakim A. Frequency of the IGF A/G rs7136446 polymorphism and athletic performance. Acta Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensis. 2016;22:36–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Ben-Zaken S, Meckel Y, Nemet D, Eliakim A. High prevalence of the IGF2 rs680 GG polymorphism among top-level sprinters and jumpers. Growth Hormon IGF Res. 2017;37:26–30.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. O’Dell SD, Miller GJ, Cooper JA, Hindmarsh PC, Pringle PJ, Ford H, et al. Apal polymorphism in insulin-like growth factor II (IGF2) gene and weight in middle-aged males. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997;21(9):822–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Gatford KL, Heinemann GK, Thompson SD, Zhang JV, Buckberry S, Owens JA, et al. Circulating IGF1 and IGF2 and SNP genotypes in men and pregnant and non-pregnant women. Endocr Connect. 2014;3(3):138.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Ben Zaken S, Meckel Y, Dror N, Nemet D, Eliakim A. IGF-I and IGF-I receptor polymorphisms among elite swimmers. Pediatr Exerc Sci. 2014;26(4):470–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Ben-Zaken S, Meckel Y, Nemet D, Eliakim A. IGF-I receptor 275124A>C (rs1464430) polymorphism and athletic performance. J Sci Med Sport. 2015;18(3):323–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Maglischo EW. Swimming fastest. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Endocrinology Clinic, Meir Medical Center, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Department of Pediatrics, Kfar Saba, Israel

    Alon Eliakim

  2. Child Health and Sports Center, Meir Medical Center, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Department of Pediatrics, Kfar Saba, Israel

    Dan Nemet

Authors
  1. Alon Eliakim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dan Nemet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alon Eliakim .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Exercise & Sport Science, Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Anthony C. Hackney

  2. Heidi Rothberg Sport Medicine Center, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Naama W. Constantini

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Eliakim, A., Nemet, D. (2020). Exercise and the GH-IGF-I Axis. In: Hackney, A., Constantini, N. (eds) Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport. Contemporary Endocrinology. Humana, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33376-8_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33376-8_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-33375-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-33376-8

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation