Abstract
Diabetes represents a group of metabolic disorders which is affecting a growing number of people. It is estimated that worldwide about 8.8% of the adult population have diabetes and another 7% has prediabetes. Type 2 diabetes is the most common form and accounts for about 90–95% of cases. Diabetes in most developed countries is the leading cause of cardiovascular disease, adult-onset blindness, kidney failure, and lower-limb amputation. The goal of diabetes treatment is the prevention of diabetes emergencies and prevention of complications. Diabetes emergencies for type 1 and type 2 diabetes include diabetes ketoacidosis and the hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, respectively. Long-term complications of hyperglycemia include microvascular complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and macrovascular complications which include coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and cerebrovascular disease. While treatment for type 1 diabetes mostly relies on insulin treatment, for patients with type 2 diabetes, there are now medications which have been shown to have also beneficial cardiovascular effects. We are therefore moving to a new era where in addition to glucose control it is now also possible to target the cardiovascular system. It is crucial that patients acquire awareness of diabetes and its complications since this is often poorly appreciated. This chapter will focus on the current epidemiology and treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes in adults.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
American Diabetes Association. (2014). Diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care, 37(Supplement 1), S81–S90. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc14-S081
American Diabetes Association. (2018). Classification and diagnosis of diabetes: Standards of medical Care in Diabetes. Diabetes Care, 41(Suppl 1), S13–s27. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc18-S002
Bergenstal, R. M., Garg, S., Weinzimer, S. A., … Kaufman, F. R. (2016). Safety of a hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery system in patients with type 1 diabetes. JAMA, 316(13), 1407–1408. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.11708
Buzzetti, R., Pozzilli, P., Frederich, R., Iqbal, N., & Hirshberg, B. (2016). Saxagliptin improves glycaemic control and C-peptide secretion in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA). Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 32(3), 289–296. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.2717
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2017). National diabetes statistics report, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/data/statistics/statistics-report.html
Defronzo, R. A. (2009). Banting lecture. From the triumvirate to the ominous octet: A new paradigm for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes, 58(4), 773–795. https://doi.org/10.2337/db09-9028
DeFronzo, R. A., Hompesch, M., Kasichayanula, S., Liu, X., Hong, Y., Pfister, M., … Griffen, S. C. (2013). Characterization of renal glucose reabsorption in response to dapagliflozin in healthy subjects and subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 36(10), 3169–3176. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc13-0387
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. (1993). The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of Medicine, 329(14), 977–986. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199309303291401
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. (2016). Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular outcomes in type 1 diabetes: The DCCT/EDIC study 30-year follow-up. Diabetes Care, 39(5), 686–693. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc15-1990
Diaz-Valencia, P. A., Bougnères, P., & Valleron, A.-J. (2015). Global epidemiology of type 1 diabetes in young adults and adults: A systematic review. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 255. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1591-y
Elgart, J. F., Gonzalez, L., Prestes, M., Rucci, E., & Gagliardino, J. J. (2016). Frequency of self-monitoring blood glucose and attainment of HbA1c target values. Acta Diabetologica, 53(1), 57–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-015-0745-9
Gorham, E. D., Barrett-Connor, E., Highfill-McRoy, R. M., Mohr, S. B., Garland, C. F., Garland, F. C., & Ricordi, C. (2009). Incidence of insulin-requiring diabetes in the US military. Diabetologia, 52(10), 2087–2091. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-009-1449-x
Grunberger, G., Abelseth, J. M., Bailey, T. S., Bode, B. W., Handelsman, Y., Hellman, R., … Rothermel, C. (2014). Consensus statement by the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists/American College of Endocrinology insulin pump management task force. Endocrine Practice, 20(5), 463–489. https://doi.org/10.4158/ep14145.ps
Heinemann, L., Home, P. D., & Hompesch, M. (2015). Biosimilar insulins: Guidance for data interpretation by clinicians and users. Diabetes Obesity & Metabolism, 17(10), 911–918. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.12491
Holman, R. R., Paul, S. K., Bethel, M. A., Matthews, D. R., & Neil, H. A. W. (2008). 10-year follow-up of intensive glucose control in type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 359(15), 1577–1589. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0806470
International. (2017). IDF diabetes atlas 7. Retrieved from http://www.diabetesatlas.org/
Johansen, O. E., Boehm, B. O., Grill, V., Torjesen, P. A., Bhattacharya, S., Patel, S., & Woerle, H. J. (2014). C-peptide levels in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults treated with linagliptin versus glimepiride: Exploratory results from a 2-year double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Diabetes Care, 37(1), e11–e12. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc13-1523
Katsarou, A., Gudbjornsdottir, S., Rawshani, A., Dabelea, D., Bonifacio, E., Anderson, B. J., & Lernmark, A. (2017). Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Dis Primers, 3, 17016. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2017.16
Lamos, E. M., Younk, L. M., & Davis, S. N. (2016). Concentrated insulins: The new basal insulins. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 12, 389–400. https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S99855
Landstedt-Hallin, L., Arner, P., Lins, P. E., Bolinder, J., Olsen, H., & Groop, L. (1999). The role of sulphonylurea in combination therapy assessed in a trial of sulphonylurea withdrawal. Scandinavian insulin-Sulphonylurea study group research team. Diabetic Medicine, 16(10), 827–834.
Laugesen, E., Østergaard, J. A., & Leslie, R. D. G. (2015). Latent autoimmune diabetes of the adult: Current knowledge and uncertainty. Diabetic Medicine, 32(7), 843–852. https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.12700
Lind, M., Polonsky, W., Hirsch, I. B., … Hellman, J. (2017). Continuous glucose monitoring vs conventional therapy for glycemic control in adults with type 1 diabetes treated with multiple daily insulin injections: The gold randomized clinical trial. JAMA, 317(4), 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.19976
Malanda, U. L., Welschen, L. M., Riphagen, I. I., Dekker, J. M., Nijpels, G., & Bot, S. D. (2012). Self-monitoring of blood glucose in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus who are not using insulin. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1, Cd005060. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005060.pub3
Marso, S. P., Daniels, G. H., Brown-Frandsen, K., Kristensen, P., Mann, J. F. E., Nauck, M. A., … Buse, J. B. (2016). Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 375(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1603827
Miller, K. M., Foster, N. C., Beck, R. W., Bergenstal, R. M., DuBose, S. N., DiMeglio, L. A., … Tamborlane, W. V. (2015). Current state of type 1 diabetes treatment in the U.S.: Updated data from the T1D exchange clinic registry. Diabetes Care, 38(6), 971–978. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc15-0078
Moy, C. S., Songer, T. J., LaPorte, R. E., Dorman, J. S., Kriska, A. M., Orchard, T. J., … Drash, A. L. (1993). Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, physical activity, and death. American Journal of Epidemiology, 137(1), 74–81.
Nauck, M. A., Baller, B., & Meier, J. J. (2004). Gastric inhibitory polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-1 in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes, 53(Suppl 3), S190–S196.
Pi-Sunyer, X. (2014). The look AHEAD trial: A review and discussion of its outcomes. Curr Nutr Rep, 3(4), 387–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-014-0099-x
Pratley, R. E. (2016). Should GLP-1 receptor agonists be the first line of treatment for type 2 diabetes? Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 18(11), 671–673. https://doi.org/10.1089/dia.2016.0339
Ratner, R. E., Dickey, R., Fineman, M., Maggs, D. G., Shen, L., Strobel, S. A., … Kolterman, O. G. (2004). Amylin replacement with pramlintide as an adjunct to insulin therapy improves long-term glycaemic and weight control in type 1 diabetes mellitus: A 1-year, randomized controlled trial. Diabetic Medicine, 21(11), 1204–1212. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-5491.2004.01319.x
Ruedy, K. J., Parkin, C. G., Riddlesworth, T. D., & Graham, C. (2017). Continuous glucose monitoring in older adults with type 1 and type 2 diabetes using multiple daily injections of insulin: Results from the DIAMOND trial. Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology, 1932296817704445. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932296817704445
Skyler, J. S., Bergenstal, R., Bonow, R. O., Buse, J., Deedwania, P., Gale, E. A. M., … Sherwin, R. S. (2009). Intensive glycemic control and the prevention of cardiovascular events: Implications of the ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VA diabetes trials. A position statement of the American Diabetes Association and a scientific statement of the American College of Cardiology Foundation and the American Heart Association, 32(1), 187–192. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc08-9026
UKPDS Group. (1998). Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK prospective diabetes study (UKPDS) group. Lancet, 352(9131), 837–853.
Vella, S., Buetow, L., Royle, P., Livingstone, S., Colhoun, H. M., & Petrie, J. R. (2010). The use of metformin in type 1 diabetes: A systematic review of efficacy. Diabetologia, 53(5), 809–820. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-009-1636-9
Vendrame, F., Hopfner, Y. Y., Diamantopoulos, S., Virdi, S. K., Allende, G., Snowhite, I. V., … Pugliese, A. (2016). Risk factors for type 1 diabetes recurrence in immunosuppressed recipients of simultaneous pancreas-kidney transplants. American Journal of Transplantation, 16(1), 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.13426
Wing, R. R., Bolin, P., Brancati, F. L., Bray, G. A., Clark, J. M., Coday, M., … Yanovski, S. Z. (2013). Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes. The New England Journal of Medicine, 369(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1212914
Whalen, K., Miller, S., & Onge, E. S. (2015). The role of sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Clinical Therapeutics, 37(6), 1150–1166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2015.03.004
Whitehouse, F., Kruger, D. F., Fineman, M., Shen, L., Ruggles, J. A., Maggs, D. G., … Kolterman, O. G. (2002). A randomized study and open-label extension evaluating the long-term efficacy of pramlintide as an adjunct to insulin therapy in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 25(4), 724–730.
Zinman, B., Wanner, C., Lachin, J. M., Fitchett, D., Bluhmki, E., Hantel, S., … Inzucchi, S. E. (2015). Empagliflozin, cardiovascular outcomes, and mortality in type 2 diabetes. New England Journal of Medicine, 373(22), 2117–2128. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1504720
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Chertman, L.S., Neuman, D., Vendrame, F. (2020). Update on Diabetes Medical Management: Epidemiology and Treatment. In: Delamater, A., Marrero, D. (eds) Behavioral Diabetes. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33286-0_18
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33286-0_18
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-33284-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-33286-0
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)