Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Trauma, Assessment, and Management in Sexual Offender Contexts

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Assessing Trauma in Forensic Contexts

  • 1196 Accesses

Abstract

Sexual offenders represent a heterogeneous group of individuals that are heavily regulated by complex federal and state laws. The main psycholegal questions pertaining to sexual offenders are recidivism and dangerousness, assessing for mitigating factors at sentencing, and evaluations to determine appropriate management and treatment services in the community. This chapter will provide an overview of relevant laws, tools to assess risk for recidivism, and treatment. These items will be placed in the context of trauma within this population, with the emphasis being on adult male offenders. This chapter will focus on antecendent childhood trauma, and the impact of trauma incurred from incarceration, commitment, and legislation regulating sex offender management in the community.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbey, A., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & LeBreton, J. M. (2011). Risk factors for sexual aggression in young men: An expansion of the confluence model. Aggressive Behavior, 37(5), 450–464.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Abbey, A., Parkhill, M. R., Jacques-Tiura, A. J., & Saenz, C. (2009). Alcohol’s role in men's use of coercion to obtain unprotected sex. Substance Use & Misuse, 44(9–10), 1329–1348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman, A. R., Sacks, M., & Greenberg, D. (2012). Legislation targeting sex offenders: Are recent policies effective in reducing rape? Justice Quarterly, 29(6), 858–887.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adam Walsh Act, Pub.L. 109–248 (2006).

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, P. C. (1992). Application of attachment theory to the study of sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(2), 185–195.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, R. (2010). Collaborative supervision strategies for sex offender community management. Federal Probation, 74(2), 16–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ames, M. A., & Houston, D. A. (1990). Legal, social, and biological definitions of pedophilia. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 19(4), 333–342.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2003). The psychology of criminal conduct (3rd ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, D. A., & Bonta, J. (2007). The psychology of criminal conduct (4th ed.). Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). (2000). Brief for the Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers as Amicus Curiae in support of petitioner. Kansas v. Crane.

    Google Scholar 

  • Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). (2010). Civil commitment of sexual violent persons. Retrieved from: http://www.atsa.com/pdfs/Policy/CivilCommitment.pdf

  • Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers (ATSA). (2014). Practice guidelines for the assessment, treatment, and management of male adult sexual abusers. Beaverton, OR: ATSA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Babchishin, K. M., Hanson, R. K., & Hermann, C. A. (2011). The characteristics of online sex offenders: A meta-analysis. Sexual Abuse, 23(1), 92–123.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bard, L. A., Carter, D. L., Cerce, D. D., Knight, R. A., Rosenberg, R., & Schneider, B. (1987). A descriptive study of rapists and child molesters: Developmental, clinical and criminal characteristics. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 5(2), 203–220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, A. (2019). VA incorrectly denied military sexual trauma benefits, Congress calls for change. Retrieved from: https://connectingvets.radio.com/articles/military-sexual-trauma-survivors-denied-benefits-va-congress-wants-change

  • Berenson, J. A., & Appelbaum, P. S. (2011). A geospatial analysis of the impact of sex offender residency restrictions in two New York counties. Law and Human Behavior, 35, 235–246.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berliner, L. (1996). Community notification: Neither a panacea nor a calamity. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research & Treatment, 8(2), 101–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blagden, N., Winder, B., & Hames, C. (2016). “They treat us like human beings”—Experiencing a therapeutic sex offenders prison impact on prisoners and staff and implications for treatment. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 60, 371–396.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, M. (2004). Wisconsin’s sex offender registration and notification laws: Has the Wisconsin Legislature left the criminals and constitution behind? Marquette Law Review, 87(5), 939–980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, E., & Gannon, T. A. (2011). Loneliness in sexual offenders. In S. J. Bevinn (Ed.), Psychology of loneliness (pp. 49–68). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boer, D. P., Hart, S. D., Kropp, P. R., & Webster, C. D. (2017). Manual for the sexual violence scale risk–20. Version 2. Vancouver, BC: Protect International Risk and Safety Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brankley, A. E., Helmus, L.-M., & Hanson, R. K. (2017). STABLE-2007 evaluator workbook: Updated recidivism rates (includes combinations with Static-99R, Static-2002R, and Risk Matrix 2000). Unpublished report. Ottawa, ON: Public Safety Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brannon, Y. N., Levenson, J. S., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. N. (2007). Attitudes about community notification: A comparison of sexual offenders and the non-offending public. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 19, 369–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1988). The long-term clinical correlates of childhood sexual victimization. In R. A. Prentky & V. L. Quinsey (Eds.), Human sexual aggression (Vol. 528, pp. 327–344). New York: The New York Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K., Spencer, J., & Deakin, J. (2007). The reintegration of sex offenders: Barriers and opportunities for employment. The Howard Journal, 46(1), 32–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, A., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin, 99(1), 66–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budd, K. M., Burbrink, M. J., & Conner, T. A. (2016). Team member’s perceptions on a sex offender reentry court’s failure to launch: A pilot study. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 22(3), 394–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bumby, K. M., & Hansen, D. J. (1997). Intimacy deficits, fear of intimacy, and loneliness among sexual offenders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24, 315–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burchfield, K. B. (2012). Assessing community residents’ perceptions of local registered sex offenders. Deviant Behavior, 33(4), 241–259.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burchfield, K. B., & Mingus, W. (2008). Not in my neighborhood: Assessing registered sex offenders’ experiences with local social capital and social control. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(3), 356–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burchfield, K. B., & Mingus, W. (2014). Sex offender reintegration: Consequences of the local neighborhood context. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 39, 109–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Call, C. (2018). The collateral consequences of sex offender management policies: Views from professionals. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(3), 676–696.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2019). Prevention sexual violence. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/features/sexualviolence/index.html

  • Cohen, L. J., McGeoch, P. G., Gans, S. W., Nikiforov, K., Cullen, K., & Galynker, I. I. (2002). Childhood sexual history of 20 male pedophiles vs. 24 male healthy control subjects. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190(11), 757–766.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comartin, E., Kernsmith, P., & Miles, B. (2010). Family experiences of young adult sex offender registration. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 19(2), 204–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conroy, M. A. (2006). Risk management of sex offenders: A model for community intervention. The Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 34, 5–23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Craissati, J., McClurg, G., & Browne, K. (2002). Characteristics of perpetrators of child sexual abuse who have been sexually victimized as children. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment, 14(3), 225–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cubellis, M. A., Walfield, S. M., & Harris, A. J. (2018). Collateral consequences and effectiveness of sex offender registration and notification. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(4), 1080–1106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, A., Carson, E., Newton, D., & Hobbs, G. (2014). Professional views on the management of sex offender in the community. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 53, 171–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeMatteo, D., Murphy, M., & Galloway, M. (2015). A national survey of United States sexually violent person legislation: Policy, procedures, and practice. International Journal of Forensic Mental Health, 14, 245–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Defense. (2019). Department of defense annual report on sexual assault in the military fiscal year 2018. (Reference ID: 7-1ED0167). Retrieved from: https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/800-dod-annual-report-on-sexual-as/d659d6d0126ad2b19c18/optimized/full.pdf#page=1

  • Duwe, G., & Donnay, W. (2008). The impact of Megan’s law on sex offender recidivism: The Minnesota experience. Criminology, 46, 411–446.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, E. R., & Mottarella, K. (2015). Perceptions of the previously convicted: The influence of convicted type of therapy participation. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 59(12), 1358–1377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, K. A. (2000). Stigmatizing the stigmatized: A note on the mentally ill prison inmate. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44, 480–489.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, W., & Hensley, C. (2001). Contextualizing sex offender management legislation and policy: Evaluating the problem of latent consequences in community notification laws. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(1), 83–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elbogen, E. B., Patry, M., Scalora, M. J. (2003). The impact of community notification laws on sex offender treatment attitudes. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 26, 207–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • English, K. (1998). The containment approach: An aggressive strategy for the community management of adult sex offenders. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 4, 218–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epperson, D. Kaul, J., Huot, S., Goldman, R., & Alexander, W. (2003). Minnesota Sex Offender Screening Tool- Revised (MnSOST-R) technical paper: Development, validation, and recommended risk level cut scores. Retrieved from: https://rsoresearch.files.wordpress.com/2012/01/ia-state-study.pdf

  • Erooga, M. (2008). A human rights-based approach to sex offender management: The key to effective public protection? Journal of Sexual Aggression, 14(3), 171–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. N., & Cubellis, M. A. (2015). Coping with stigma: How registered sex offenders manage their public identities. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 40, 593–619.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, D. N., & Porter, J. R. (2015). Criminal history and landlord rental decisions: A New York quasi-experimental study. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 11, 21–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farkas, M. A., & Miller, G. (2007). Reentry and reintegration: Challenges faced by the families of convicted sex offenders. Federal Sentencing Report, 20(2), 88–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farley, L. G. (2008). The Adam Walsh Act: The Scarlet Letter of the twenty-first century. Washburn Law Journal, 47, 471–503.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferranti, S. (February, 18, 2015). Why are so many sex offenders getting murdered in California’s prisons? Retrieved from: https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/ppmjy8/why-sex-offenders-are-getting-slaughtered-in-california-prisons-218

  • Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D. (1990). Early and long-term effects of child sexual abuse: An update. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21(5), 325–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeman-Longo, R. E. (1996). Prevention or problem. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research & Treatment, 8(2), 91–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freund, K., & Kuban, M. (1994). The basis of the abused abuser theory of pedophilia: A further elaboration on an earlier study. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 23(5), 553–563.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Furst, R. T., & Evans, D. N. (2015). An exploration of stigma in the lives of sex offenders and heroin abusers. Deviant Behavior, 36, 130–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garbarino, J. (2017). ACEs in the criminal justice system. Academic Pediatrics, 17, S32–S33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garfinkle, E. (2003). Coming of age in America: The misapplication of sex-offender registration and community notification to juveniles. California Law Review, 91(1), 163–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of a spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Shuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J. (2014, August). Housing restrictions keeps sex offenders in prison beyond release dates. New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/22/nyregion/with-new-limits-on-where-they-can-go-sex-offenders-are-held-after-serving-sentences.html

  • Groth, A. N. (1978). Guidelines for assessment and management of the offender. In N. G. A. Burgess, S. Holmstrom, & S. Sgroi (Eds.), Sexual assault of children and adolescents (pp. 25–42). Lexington: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grove, M. G., & Meehl, P. E. (1996). Comparative efficiency of informal and formal prediction procedures: The clinical-statistical controversy. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 2(2), 293–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • H.R.1092: Servicemembers and Veterans Empowerment and Support Act of 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, R. C. W., & Hall, R. C. W. (2007). A profile of pedophilia: Definition, characteristics of offenders, recidivism, treatment outcomes, and forensic issues. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 82(4), 457–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K. (1997). The development of a brief actuarial risk scale for sexual offense recidivism. (User Report 97-04). Ottawa, ON: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K. (1998). What do we know about sex offender risk assessment? Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 4, 50–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Bussiere, M. T. (1998). Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 348–362.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K. & Harris, A. J. R. (1998). Dynamic predictors of Sexual Recidivism 1998-1. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Sollicitor General of Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness). Retrieved from http://static99.org/pdfdocs/hansonandharris1998.pdf

  • Hanson, R. K., & Harris, A. J. R. (2000). Where should we intervene?: Dynamic predictors of sexual offense recidivism. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 27(1), 6–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., Harris, A. J. R., Scott, T.-L., & Helmus, L. (2007). Assessing the risk of sexual offenders on community supervision: The Dynamic Supervision Project (User report, Corrections research). Ottawa, ON: Public Safety Canada. Retrieved from http://www.static99.org/pdfdocs/hansonharrisscottandhelmus2007.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2004). Predictors of sexual recidivism: An updated meta-analysis (Corrections Research User Report No. 2004–02). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2005). The characteristics of persistent sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of recidivism studies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 1154–1163.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K. & Morton-Bourgon, K. E. (2009). The accuracy of recidivism risk assessments for sexual offenders: A meta-analysis of 118 prediction studies. Psychological Assessment, 21, 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Slater, S. (1988). Sexual victimization in the history of sexual abusers: A review. Annals of sex research, 1(4), 485–499.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (1999). Static-99: Improving actuarial risk assessments for sex offenders. User Report 99–02. Ottawa, ON: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada. Department of the Solicitor General of Canada website. www.sgc.gc.ca

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A. J. (2017). Policy implication of New York’s sex offender civil management assessment process. American Society of Criminology, 16(3), 949–957.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A. J. R. & Hanson. R. K. (2004). Sex offender recidivism: A simple question 2004-03. Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, represented by the Sollicitor General of Canada (Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness). Retrieved from http://static99.org/pdfdocs/harrisandhanson2004simpleq.pdf

  • Harris, A. J., Levenson, J. S., Lobanov-Rostovksy, C., & Walfield, S. M. (2018). Law enforcement perspectives of sex offender registrations and notification: Effectiveness, challenges, and policy priorities. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 29(4), 391–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, A. J. R., Phenix, A., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2003). Static-99 coding rules: Revised 2003. Ottawa, ON: Department of the Solicitor General of Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heilbrun, K., Yassuhara, K., & Shah, S. A. (2010). Approaches to violence risk assessment. Overview and critical analysis. In R. Otto & K. S. Douglas (Eds.), Handbook of violence risk assessment (pp. 1–17). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Rights Watch (2007). No easy answers: Sex offender laws in the United States. Vol. 19, No. 4(G). Retrieved from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2007/09/11/no-easy-answers/sex-offender-laws-us

  • Human Rights Watch (2013). Raised on the registry: The irreparable harm of placing children on the sex offender registries in the US. Retrieved from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2013/05/01/raised-registry/irreparable-harm-placing-children-sex-offender-registries-us

  • Ireland, J. L. (2000). “Bullying” among prisoners: A review of research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 5, 201–215.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act, 42 U.S.C. §14071 (1994).

    Google Scholar 

  • James, M.S. (August, 26, 2003). Prison is “Living Hell” for Pedophiles. Retrieved from: https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/talks-resume-sunday-stop-shop-striking-workers-62537511

  • Jespersen, A. F., Lalumière, M. L., & Seto, M. C. (2009). Sexual abuse history among adult sex offenders and non-sex offenders: A meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 179–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, K. D. (1999). The media and Megan’s Law: Is community notification the answer? Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 38(2), 80–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanin, E. J. (1957). Male aggression in dating-courtship relations. American Journal of Sociology, 63(2), 197–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kansas v. Crane, 534 U.S. S. Ct. 407 (2002).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kansas v. Hendricks, 117 S. Ct. 2072 (1997).

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1987). Do abused children become abusive parents? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(2), 186–192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpatrick, D. G., Edmunds, C. N., & Seymour, A. (1992). Rape in America: A report to the nation. Charleston: Medical University of South Carolina, National Victim Center and Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirkpatrick, C., & Kanin, E. (1957). Male sex aggression on a university campus. American Sociological Review, 22(1), 52–58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight, R. A., Rosenberg, R., & Schneider, B. (Eds.). (1985). Classification of sexual offenders: Perspectives, methods, and validation. New York: Garland Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., & Gidycz, C. A. (1985). Sexual experiences survey: Reliability and validity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53(3), 422–423.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., Gidycz, C. A., & Wisniewski, N. (1987). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55(2), 162–170.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koss, M. P., & Oros, C. J. (1982). Sexual experiences survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 455–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kubrin, C. E., & Stewart, E. A. (2006). Prediction who reoffends: The neglected role of neighborhood context in recidivism studies. Criminology, 44(1), 165–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaFond, J. Q. (2000). The future of involuntary civil commitment in the U.S.A. after Kansas v. Hendricks. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 153–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaFond, J. Q., & Winick, B. J. (2004). Sex offender reentry courts: A proposal for managing the risk of returning sex offenders to the community. Seton Hall Law Review, 34, 1173–1212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamade, R. V., & Prentky, R. A. (2019). Taxonomic discrimination among sex offenders: Forensic Utility? In D. Bromberg & W. O’Donahue (Eds.), Sexually violent predators: A clinical science handbook. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langan, P.A., Schmitt, E.L., Durose, M.R. (2003). Recidivism of sex offenders released from prison in 1994. U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Programs. NCJ 198281. Retrieved from: https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/rsorp94.pdf

  • Laws, D. R. (1989). Relapse prevention with sex offenders. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeBel, T. P. (2012). “If one doesn’t get you another one will”: Formerly incarcerated persons’ perceptions of discrimination. The Prison Journal, 92(1), 63–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. K. P., Jackson, H. J., Pattison, P., & Ward, T. (2002). Developmental risk factors for sexual offending. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26, 73–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Washington Laws of 1990, Chapter 3. Retrieved from: leg.wa.gov/CodeReviser/documents/sessionlaw/1990c3.pdf

  • Letourneau, E. J., Levenson, J. S., Bandyopadhyay, D., Sinha, D., & Armstrong, K. S. (2010). Effects of South Carolina’s sex offender registration and notification policy on adult recidivism. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 21, 435–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. (2014). Incorporating trauma-informed care into evidence-based sex offender treatment. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 20(1), 9–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J., & Tewksbury, R. (2009). Collateral damage: Family members of registered sex offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 34, 54–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S. (2003). Policy interventions designed to combat sexual violence: Community notification and civil commitment. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 12(3/4), 17–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S. (2008). Collateral consequences of sex offender residence restrictions. Criminal Justice Studies, 21(2), 153–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., Brannon, Y. N., Fortney, T., & Baker, J. (2007). Public perception about sex offenders and community protection policies. Analysis of Social Issues and Public Policy, 7, 137–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Cotter, L. P. (2005a). The effect of Megan’s law on sex offender reintegration. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 49–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & Cotter, L. P. (2005b). The impact of sex offender residence restrictions: 1,000 feet from danger or one step from absurd? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 168–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., & D’Amora, D. A. (2007). Social policies designed to prevent sexual violence: The emperor’s new clothes? Criminal Justice Policy Review, 18, 168–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., D’Amora, D. A., & Hern, A. L. (2007). Megan’s law and its impact on community re-entry for sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 25, 587–602.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, J. S., Letourneau, E., Armstrong, K., & Zgoba, K. (2010). Failure to register as a sex offender: Is it associated with recidivism? Justice Quarterly, 27, 305–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levi, R. (2000). Community notification laws: A step toward more effective solutions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(6), 298–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotke, E. (1997). Politics and irrelevance: Community notification statutes. Federal Sentencing Reporter, 10(2), 64–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, N. (2012). Ageing child sex offenders in prison: Denial, manipulation and community. The Howard Journal, 51(4), 345–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mann, R. E., Hanson, R. K., & Thornton, D. (2010). Assessing risk for sexual recidivism: Some proposals on the nature of psychologically meaningful risk factors. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 22(2), 191–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L. (1989). Intimacy, loneliness and sexual offenders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27(5), 491–503.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L. (2010). The role of attachments, intimacy, and loneliness in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 25, 73–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, W. L., & Barbaree, H. E. (1990). An integrated theory of the etiology of sexual offending. In W. L. Marhsall, D. R. Laws & H. E. Barbaree (Eds.). Handbook of Sexual Assualt: Issues, Theories, and Treatment of the Offender (pp. 257–275). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCarthy, J. A. (2010). Internet sexual activity: A comparison between contact and non-contact child pornography offenders. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 16(2), 181–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Megan’s Law, Pub. L. No. 104–145, § 2, 110 Stat. 1345 (1996).

    Google Scholar 

  • Metcalf, H., Anderson, T., & Rolfe, H. (2001). Barriers to employment for offenders and ex-offenders (DWP Research Report No. 155), Leeds: Corporate Document Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mingus, W., & Burchfield, K. B. (2012). From prison to integration: Applying modified labeling theory to sex offenders. Criminal Justice Studies: A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society, 25(1), 97–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J. A. (2010). Sex offender civil commitment: The treatment paradox. California Law Review, 98, 2093–2128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J. B. (2000). Psychological profile of pedophiles and child molesters. The Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 134(2), 211–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustaine, E. E., Tewksbury, R., & Stengel, K. M. (2006a). Residential location and mobility of registered sex offenders. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(2), 177–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustaine, E. E., Tewksbury, R., & Stengel, K. M. (2006b). Social disorganization and residential locations of registered sex offenders: Is this a collateral consequence? Deviant Behavior, 27(3), 329–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Sexual Violence Resource Center (NSVRC). (2015). Statistics about sexual violence. Retrieved from: https://www.nsvrc.org/sites/default/files/publications_nsvrc_factsheet_media-packet_statistics-about-sexual-violence_0.pdf

  • Peters, R. H., Wexler, H. K., & Lurigio, A. J. (2015). Co-occurring substance use and mental disorders in the criminal justice system: A new frontier of clinical practice and research. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 38(1), 1–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petersilia, J. (2001). When prisoners return to communities: Political, economic, and social consequences. U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice. Sentencing and Corrections: Issues for the 21st Century, 9, 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petersilia, J. (2003). When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phenix, A., Helmus, L., & Hanson, R. K., (2012). Statis-99R & Static-2002R Evaluators’ Workbook. Retrieved from: http://www.static99.org/pdfdocs/Static-99RandStatic-2002R_EvaluatorsWorkbook2012-07-26.pdf

  • Prentky, R. (1996). Community notification and constructive risk reduction. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 11(2), 295–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentky, R., Knight, R., & Lee, A. (1997). Child sexual molestation: Research issues. (NCJ 163390). Justice Information Center World Wide Web Site U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs NIJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentky, R. A. (1999). Child sexual molestation. In V. B. Van Hasselt & M. Hersen (Eds.), Handbook of psychological approaches with violent offenders (pp. 267–300). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentky, R. A., Barbaree, H. E., & Janus, E. S. (2015). Sexual predators: Society risk and the law. New York. New York: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentky, R. A., Lee, A. F., Lamade, R. V., Grossi, L., Schuler, A., Dube, G., … Pond, A. (2014). Placement instability as a risk factor in proximal sexually inappropriate and aggressive behaviors in a child welfare sample. Journal of Child Custody, 11(4), 251–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prentky, R. A., & Righthand, S. (2003). Juvenile sex offender assessment protocol-II (J-SOAP-II) Manual. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239605808

  • Prescott, J. J., & Rockoff, J. E. (2011). Do sex offender registration and notification laws affect criminal behavior? Journal of Law & Economics, 54(1), 161–206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prosecutorial Remedies and Other Tools to End the Exploitation of Children Today (PROTECT) Act, Pub. L. 108–21, § 362, 117 Stat. 665 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  • Przybylski, R. (2015). Recidivism of Adult Sexual Offenders. United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering, and Tracking, SOMAPI Research Brief, 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E., & Cormier, C. A. (2006). Violent offenders: Appraising and managing risk (2nd ed.). The law and public policy. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raymond, N. C., Coleman, E., Ohlerking, F., Christenson, G. A., & Miner, M. (1999). Psychiatric comorbidity in pedophilic sex offenders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 786–788.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolfe, S. M., Tewksbury, R., & Schroeder, R. D. (2017). Homeless shelters’ policies on sex offenders: Is this another collateral consequence? International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 61(16), 1833–1849.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rood, L. (2006, January 23). New data shows twice as many sex offenders missing. Des Moines Register. Retrieved from: https://ccoso.org/facts-about-jessica%E2%80%99s-law-and-sex-offenders-residency-restrictions

  • Rydberg, J., Grommon, E., Huebner, B. M., & Bynum, T. (2014). The effects of statewide residency restrictions on sex offender post-release housing mobility. Justice Quarterly, 31(2), 421–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandler, J. C., Freeman, N. J., & Socia, K. M. (2008). Does a watched pot boil? A time-series analysis of New York State’s sex offender registration and notification law. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 14, 284–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiavone, S. K., & Jeglic, E. L. (2009). Public perception of sex offender social policies and the impact on sex offenders. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 53(6), 679–695.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schram, D., & Milloy, C. D. (1995). Community notification: A study of offender characteristics and recidivism. Olympia, WA: Washington Institute for Public Policy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, C. (2014). The stigmatization of individuals convicted of sex offenders: Labeling theory and the sex offense registry. Themis: Research Journal of Justice Studies and Forensic Science, 2(4), 64–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwaebe, C. (2005). Learning to pass: Sex offenders’ strategies for establishing a viable identity in the prison general population. Interpersonal Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 49, 614–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seghorn, T. K., Prentky, R. A., & Boucher, R. J. (1987). Childhood sexual abuse in the lives of sexually aggressive offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(2), 262–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seto, M. C. (2013). Internet sex offenders. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K., & Howitt, D. (2008). Sexual fantasy in paedophile offenders: Can any model explain satisfactorily new findings from a study of internet and contact sexual offenders? Legal and Criminological Psychology, 13(1), 137–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smallbone, S. W., & Dadds, M. R. (1998). Childhood attachment and adult attachment in incarcerated adult male sex offenders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 13(5), 555–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Socia, K. M. (2011). The policy implications of residence restrictions on sex offender housing in Upstate NY. Criminology & Public Policy, 10(2), 351–389.

    Google Scholar 

  • Socia, K. M., Levenson, J. S., Ackerman, A. R., & Harris, A. J. (2015). “Brothers under the bridge”: Factors influencing the transience of registered sex offenders in Florida. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 27, 559–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063214521472

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer, D. (2009). Sex offender as homo sacer. Punishment & Society, 11, 219–240.

    Google Scholar 

  • State of New York v. Donald DD. 24 N.Y.3d 174 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  • State of New York v. Kenneth T. Slip Op 03336 [106AD3d 829] (2013).

    Google Scholar 

  • Stinson, J. D., & Clark, M. D. (2017). Motivational interviewing with offenders: Engagement, rehabilitation and reentry. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sutherland, E. H. (1950). The diffusion of sexual psychopath laws. American Journal of Sociology, 56, 142–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R. (2004). Experiences and attitudes of registered female sex offenders. Federal Probation, 68(3), 30–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R. (2005). Collateral consequences of sex offender registration. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 21(1), 67–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R. (2012). Stigmatization of sex offenders. Deviant Behavior, 33, 606–623.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., & Connor, D. P. (2012). Incarcerated sex offenders’ perceptions of family relationships: Previous experiences and future expectations. Western Criminology Review, 13(2), 25–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., Jennings, W. G., & Zgoba, K. M. (2012). A longitudinal examination of sex offender recidivism prior to and following implementation of SORN. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30, 308–328.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., & Lees, M. B. (2006). Perceptions of sex offender registration: Collateral consequences and community experiences. Sociological Spectrum, 26(3), 309–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., & Levenson, J. S. (2009). Stress experiences of family members of registered sex offenders. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 27, 611–626.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tewksbury, R., & Zgoba, K. M. (2010). Perceptions and coping with punishment how registered sex offenders respond to stress, internet restrictions, and the collateral consequences of registration. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54, 537–551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tharinger, D. (1990). Impact of child sexual abuse on developing sexuality. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 21(5), 331–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Expanded VAWA Legislation in 2000. (P. L.106–386, 18 U.S.C. 2261).

    Google Scholar 

  • The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA). of 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Pam Lychner Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act (42 U.S.C. 14072). in 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Victims of Trafficking and Violence Prevention Act. of 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Violence Against Women Act. of 1994 (VAWA).

    Google Scholar 

  • The Wetterling Improvements Act of 1997. (P.L. 105–119).

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornton, D., Mann, R., Webster, S., Blud, L., Travers, R., Friendship, C., & Erikson, M. (2003). Distinguishing and combining risks for sexual and violent recidivism. In R. Prentky, E. Janus, M. Seto, & A. W. Burgess (Eds.), Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (Vol. 989. Sexually coercive behavior: Understanding and management, pp. 225–235). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolson, D., & Klein, J. (2015). Registration, residency restrictions and community notification: A social capital perspective on the isolation of registered sex offenders in our communities. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 25, 375–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Justice. (2011). Child exploitation and obscenity section. Retrieved from: http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ceos/subjectareas/childporn.html

  • United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Tracking, Monitoring, Apprehension, Registration and Tracking (SMART). (2018). Sex offender registration and notification in the United States current case law and issues — March 2018. Military registration. Retrieved from: https://www.smart.gov/caselaw/4-Military.pdf

  • United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Office of Sex Offender Sentencing, Tracking, Monitoring, Apprehension, Registration and Tracking (SMART). (2019). Sex offender registration and notification in the United States. Current case law and issues – March 2019. Retrieved from: https://smart.gov/caselaw/10-Miscellaneous.pdf

  • United States Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.). PTSD: National Center for PTSD. Military Sexual Trauma. Retrieved from: https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/types/sexual_trauma_military.asp

  • United States v. White Horse, 177 F. Supp. 2d 973. (D.S.D. 2001).

    Google Scholar 

  • United States v. Birdsbills 243 F.Supp.2d 1128 (2003).

    Google Scholar 

  • Urquiza, A. J., & Crowley, C. (1986). Sex differences in the survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Paper presented at the paper presented at the fourth conference on the sexual victimization of children. LA: New Orleans.

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Berg, C., Beijersbergen, K., Nieuwbeerta, P., & Dirkzwager, A. (2018). Sexual offenders in prison: Are they socially isolated? Sexual Abuse, 30(7), 828–845.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vasquez, B. E., Maddan, S., & Walker, J. T. (2008). The influence of sex offender registration and notification laws in the United States. Crime & Delinquency, 54, 175–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, C. (2011). The good left undone: How to stop sex offender law from causing unnecessary harm at the expense of effectiveness. American Journal of Criminal Law, 38, 263–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, T. (2007). On a clear day you can see forever: Integrating values and skills in sex offender treatment. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 13, 187–201.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, T., & Hudson, S. M. (2000). A self-regulation model of relapse prevention. In D. R. Laws, S. M. Hudson, & T. Ward (Eds.), Remaking relapse prevention with sex offenders: A sourcebook (pp. 79–101). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, T., & Steward, C. A. (2003). The treatment of sex offenders: Risk management and good lives. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 34(4), 353–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, L., Craissati, J., & Keen, S. (2007). Characteristics of internet child pornography offenders: A comparison with child molesters. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research & Treatment, 19(4), 449–465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11194-007-9063-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weir, K. (December 2015). Life on the outside. Psychologist are working to increase and improve the reentry services that can help former inmate face the challenges awaiting them outside prison walls. Monitor on Psychology, 46(11), 66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Younglove, J. A., & Vitello, C. J. (2003). Community notification provisions of “Megan’s Law” from a therapeutic jurisprudence perspective: A case study. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 21(1), 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zandbergen, P., & Hart, T. (2006). Reducing housing options for convicted sex offenders: Investigating the impact of residency restrictions laws using GIS. Justice Research and Policy, 8, 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., Crim, D., & Farkas, M. A. (2000a). Sex offender community notification: Examining the importance of neighborhood meetings. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 393–408.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., Crim, D., & Farkas, M. A. (2000b). Sex offender community notification: Managing high risk criminals or exacting further vengeance? Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 375–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. (2000). Sex offender community notification: Managing high risk criminals or exacting further vengeance? Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 18, 375–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. A. (2000a). The impact of sex offender community notification on probation/parole in Wisconsin. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 44(1), 8–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zevitz, R. G., & Farkas, M. A. (2000b). Sex offender community notification: Assessing the impact in Wisconsin. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zgoba, K., Veysey, B., & Dalessandro, M. (2010). An analysis of the effectiveness of community notification and registration: Do the best intentions predict best practices? Justice Quarterly, 27, 667–691.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zgoba, K. M., Jennings, W. G., & Salerno, L. M. (2018). Megan’s law 20 years later: An empirical analysis and policy review. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 45(7), 1028–1046.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zgoba, K. M., Levenson, J., & McKee, T. (2009). Residence restrictions on housing availability. Criminal Justice Review, 20, 91–110.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, MA, USA

    Raina V. Lamade Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Raina V. Lamade Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Raina V. Lamade Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology, St. John’s University, Queens, NY, USA

    Rafael Art. Javier

  2. Columbia University/Teachers College, New York, NY, USA

    Elizabeth A. Owen

  3. Lamb & Maddux, LLC, Hackensack, NJ, USA

    Jemour A. Maddux

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Lamade, R.V. (2020). Trauma, Assessment, and Management in Sexual Offender Contexts. In: Javier, R., Owen, E., Maddux, J. (eds) Assessing Trauma in Forensic Contexts. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33106-1_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation