Abstract
Maritime migration is not only testing the resilience of the international human rights framework, but also that of the law of the sea. Whoever encounters people in distress is under the obligation to rescue and bring them to a place of safety. However, the political environment is moving States to refuse disembarkation and thus putting a huge pressure upon merchant shipping and fishing as they cannot immediately continue their business after rescue. This pressure has been augmented by the fact that the line between rescue operation and maritime interception is becoming blurred and crewmembers criminalise as migration facilitators. The paper discusses the maritime migration challenge from the maritime professionals’ angle and the occupational hazards endured as a result of a rescue operation. While they are collateral victims of a geopolitical matter, the legislation in place already provides a safety net for them, but one that is not much efficient and effective on a closer look.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Case 10.675, Report 51/96, Decision on merits, 13 March 1997.
- 2.
2002 ECtHR judgment Hirsi Jamaa and Others v. Italy, No. 27765/09.
- 3.
See Article 98(1) of UNCLOS; Chapter V, Regulations 10a and 33(1) of SOLAS; Article 10(1) of the Salvage Convention.
- 4.
UNCLOS and Chapter V, Regulation 7(1) of SOLAS; Articles 10(1) of the Salvage Convention.
- 5.
See Chapter 2.4.1 of SAR.
- 6.
Chapter V, Regulation 33 of SOLAS.
- 7.
Chapter 1.3.2 and 2.1.2 of SAR.
- 8.
This case was brought to the cinema by the documentary film ‘Malta Radio’ directed by Manuel Menchón and released in 2009.
- 9.
IMO, Adoption of amendments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974, as amended, Rs. MSC 155(78), MSC Doc. 78/26.Add.I, Annex 3 (May 20, 2004).
- 10.
IMO, Adoption of amendments to the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue 1979, as amended, Resolution MSC Doc. 78/26.add.1, Annex 5 (May 20, 2004).
- 11.
See SOLAS, Regulation 33-1-1, and SAR, Chapter 3.1.9.
- 12.
See SAR, chapter 4.8.5.
- 13.
UNHCR Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s Program, Interception of Asylum Seekers and Refugees: the International Framework and Recommendations for a Comprehensive Approach, EC/50/SC/CRP.17 (June 9, 2000), at 10.
- 14.
UNHCR Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s Program, Conclusion on Protection Safeguards in Interception Measures. No 97 (LIV) (October 10, 2003).
- 15.
See Refugee Convention, art. 1.B.
- 16.
See Treaty of Functioning of the European Union and EU Charter on Fundamental Rights, arts. 77–80.
- 17.
OJ [2013] L 180/31. The Dublin system was first established by the Convention determining the State responsible for examining applications for asylum lodged in one of the Member States of the European Communities—Dublin Convention, OJ [1997] C 254/1, replaced by Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national, OJ [2003] L 50/1.
- 18.
Frontex was first established by Council Regulation (EC) No 2007/2004 of 26 October 2004, OJ [2004] L 349/1.
- 19.
Regulation (EU) 2016/1624 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 September 2016 on the European Border and Coast Guard and amending Regulation (EU) 2016/399 of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Regulation (EC) No 863/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council, Council Regulation (EC) No 2007/2004 and Council Decision 2005/267/EC, OJ [2016] L 251/1.
- 20.
Art. 3(a) of the Migrant Smuggling Protocol.
- 21.
See The Institute of Race Relations (2017) Humanitarism: the unacceptable face of solidarity, available at: <http://www.irr.org.uk/news/eu-member-states-in-criminalising-humanitarians-are-feeding-europes-far-right accessed 6 May 2018.
- 22.
OJ [2002] L 328/1.
- 23.
OJ [2011] L 101/1. More information is available at a dedicated webpage: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/organized-crime-and-human-trafficking/trafficking-in-human-beings_en. According to Article 3(a), “Trafficking in persons” shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs’.
- 24.
OJ [2014] L 150/112.
- 25.
- 26.
Commission Staff Working Document. REFIT Evaluation of the EU legal framework against facilitation of unauthorised entry, transit and residence: the Facilitators Package (Directive 2002/90/EC and Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA), Brussels, 22 March 2017 [SWD(2017) 117 final], at pp. 8–9 suggests that the lack of definition is due to the difficulties in tracing financial flows in third countries. This reason is however unconvincing as it leaves humanitarian smugglers unprotected.
- 27.
See Commission Staff Working Document. Executive Summary of the REFIT Evaluation of the EU legal framework against facilitation of unauthorised entry, transit and residence: the Facilitators Package (Directive 2002/90/EC and Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA), Brussels, 22 March 2017 [SWD (2017) 120 final], at p. 3.
- 28.
Art. 16(1) of the Salvage Convention.
- 29.
Art. 4 of the Hague-Visby Rules.
- 30.
Art. 10(2) of the Salvage Convention.
- 31.
Regulation 4.2, Standards A4.2.1 and A4.2.2, Guidelines B4.2.1 and B4.2.2 of the MLC, 2006, and arts. 38 and 39 of C188.
- 32.
Paragraphs 8 et seq of Standard A4.2.1 and Standard A4.2.2. of the MLC, 2006 as amended.
- 33.
Manus Island class action, Kamasaee v. Commonwealth & Ors (S CI 2014 06770).
References
Agence France Press in Mytilene (2018) Spanish firefighters in court accused of trying to help migrants enter Greece. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/may/07/spanish-firefighters-danish-volunteers-greek-court-accused-trying-help-migrants-lesbos. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Andersson R (2016) Europe’s failed ‘fight’ against irregular migration: ethnographic notes on a counterproductive industry. J Ethnic Migr Stud 42(7):1055–1075
Appleby K (2017) Strengthening the global refugee protection system: recommendations for the global compact on refugees. J Migr Human Secur 5(5):780
Commission Staff Working Document (2017) REFIT Evaluation of the EU legal framework against facilitation of unauthorised entry, transit and residence: The Facilitators Package (Directive 2002/90/EC and Framework Decision 2002/946/JHA) [SWD (2017) 117 final]
Dorsman M (2019) European shipowners call upon the EU to take immediate actions on the situation in the Mediterranean. ECSA Newsroom. Available at: https://www.ecsa.eu/index.php/news/european-shipowners-call-upon-eu-take-immediate-actions-situation-mediterranean. Accessed 11 Feb 2019
ECSA (2018) European shipowners call upon authorities to disembark the migrants on board the Alexander Maersk as soon as possible. ESCA Newsroom. Available at: https://www.ecsa.eu/index.php/news/european-shipowners-call-upon-authorities-disembark-migrants-board-alexander-maersk-soon. Accessed 2 Feb 2019
Fakhry A (2016) Implications of the migrant crisis on salvage law. Paper presented at the WMU Symposium on Migration by Sea, Malmö, Sweden, 26–27 April 2016. Available at: https://commons.wmu.se/migration_by_sea/2016/allevents/17/. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2016, Warsaw, March 2016.
Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2018, Warsaw, February 2018
Frontex, Risk Analysis for 2019, Warsaw, February 2019.
Gammeltoft-Hansen T, Tan NF (2018) The end of the deterrence-paradigm. Future directions for global refugee policy. J Migr Human Secur 5:28–56
Gogou K (2017) The EU-Turkey deal: Europe’s year of shame. Amnesty International. Available at: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2017/03/the-eu-turkey-deal-europes-year-of-shame/
HRAS (2019) Human Rights at Sea Review. Human Rights and International Rule of Law. Ramifications of De-Flagging the M/V Aquarius Dignitus. Available at https://www.humanrightsatsea.org. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
ILO/WHO (1986) Psychosocial factors at work. Recognition and control. Report of the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health. Ninth Session. Geneva, 18–24 September 1984
IMO (2004) Guidelines on the treatment of persons rescued at sea. Resolution MSC.167(78) adopted on 20 May 2004. Available at http://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Facilitation/personsrescued/Documents/MSC.167(78).pdf. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
IMO (2016) Unsafe mixed migration by sea. Further international actions in response to the migrant crisis in the Central Mediterranean. Submitted by the International Chamber of Shipping (ICS). Maritime Safety Committee, 98th session. MSC 98/15/[X] 4 April 2016
IMO (2017) Record of views of the Inter-agency meeting with the maritime industry on mixed migration. Available at: http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/seamigration/Pages/default.aspx. Accessed 11 Feb 2019
IOM (2017) Missing Migrants. Tracking Deaths along Migration Routes, database. Available at: https://missingmigrants.iom.int/
International Chamber of Shipping (2015) Large scale recue operations at sea. Guidance on ensuring the safety and security of seafarers and rescued persons, 2nd edn. ICS. Available at http://www.ics-shipping.org/docs/default-source/resources/safety-security-and-operations/large-scale-rescue-at-sea.pdf?sfvrsn=30. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Iussich L, Maglić L (2018) Search and rescue operations of immigrants at sea: challenges for the crew of merchant ships. Pomorski zbornik 55:45–58
Leggeri F (2017) Rettungseinsätze vor Libyien müssen auf den Prüfstand. Die Welt
Mangano A (2011) I pescatori tunisini salvano 44 naufraghi, l’Italia li processa. Linkiesta. Available at http://www.linkiesta.it/it/article/2011/09/27/i-pescatori-tunisini-salvano-44-naufraghi-litalia-li-processa/6134/
Martín M (2018) Malta says Spain will accept migrants rescued by fishing vessel near Libya. El Pais. Available at https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/12/03/inenglish/1543839026_777751.html. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Matziaraki D (2016) 4.1 Miles. New York Times. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/28/opinion/4-1-miles.html. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Miltner B (2006) Irregular maritime migration: refugee protection issues in rescue and interception. Fordham Int Law J 30:75–125
Oldenburg M, Baur X, Schalaich C (2010) Occupational risks and challenges of seafaring. J Occup Health 52:249–256
Rah S (2009) Asylsuchende und Migranten auf See. Staatliche Rechte und Plichten aus völerrechtlicher Sicht. Springer, Berlin
Robinson D (2016) EU border force flags concerns over charities’ interaction with migrant smugglers. Financial Times
Rodríguez Martínez M, Valero O (2019) Spain blocks rescue ship from leaving Barcelona port. Euronews. Available at https://www.euronews.com/2019/01/14/spain-blocks-rescue-ship-from-leaving-barcelona-port. Accessed 13 Feb 2019
Stevens R (2016) The Migrant crisis. Implications for P&I cover. Paper presented at the WMU Symposium on Migration by Sea, Malmö, Sweden, 26–27 April 2016. Available at: https://commons.wmu.se/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=migration_by_sea. Accessed 2 Feb 2019
Tondo L (2018a) My crew saved 218 migrants from drowning – so why are we the enemy? The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/mar/24/proactiva-open-arms-rescue-boat-saved-218-from-drowning-mediterranean-migrants
Tondo L (2018b) Italy releases Tunisian fishermen held on suspicion of smuggling migrants. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/22/italy-releases-tunisian-fishermen-arrested-on-suspicion-of-smuggling-migrants
UNHCR, Executive Committee. Problems Related to the Rescue of Asylum-Seekers in Distress at SeaProblems Related to the Rescue of Asylum-Seekers in Distress at Sea EC/SCP/30
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Office (2009) Report of the Office of the on the relationship between climate change and human rights (A/HRC/10/61)
United Nations Security Council (2018) Report to the Secretary General. Implementation of Resolution 2380. (2017). Distr.: General 31 August 2018. S/2018/807
van Liempt I (2016) A critical insight into Europe’s criminalisation of human smuggling - SIEPS European Policy Paper. SIEPS, Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies 1–12
Verhelle J (2019) Group actions in the current migration context in Europe: with or without private international law? In: Muir-Wat H et al (eds) Global private international law. Adjudication without frontiers. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 557–566
Willheim E (2003) MV Tampa: the Australian response. Int J Refug Law 15(2):159–191
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Carballo Piñeiro, L. (2020). Occupational Hazards in the Light of the Maritime Migration Challenge. In: Mukherjee, P.K., Mejia, M.Q., Xu, J. (eds) Maritime Law in Motion. WMU Studies in Maritime Affairs, vol 8. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31749-2_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31749-2_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-31748-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-31749-2
eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)