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Election Systems and Gerrymandering Worldwide pp 99–114Cite as

Gerrymandering Within Fixed Districts

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Part of the book series: Studies in Choice and Welfare ((WELFARE))

Abstract

Once seats in the national legislature are allocated to a fixed or special multi-member district, the manner of electing persons to fill those seats can take many forms.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See, Appendix C, A Case Study of Iran.

  2. 2.

    Nations that use PR elections in fixed districts or special multi-member districts include Albania (changed to PR in 2008), Angola , Albania , Argentina (DSV in some states), Algeria , Aruba, Austria , Belgium , Benin , Bosnia & Herzegovina , Bhutan , Brazil , Bulgaria , Burkina Faso , Cape Verde , Cambodia , Chile (changed to PR in 2017), Columbia, Costa Rica (DSV), Croatia , Cyprus (North and South), Czech Republic , Denmark , Dominican Republic , El Salvador , Equatorial Guinea , Estonia , Finland , Faroe Islands, Greece , Greenland, Guatemala , Guyana , Hong Kong, Honduras , Iceland , Indonesia (some provinces divided into MMDs), Iraq , Ireland (STV), Kosovo, Latvia , Liechtenstein (Two MMD constituencies), Luxembourg (Four MMD constituencies), Malta (STV), Mauritius (BV), Macedonia , Mongolia , Moldova, Morocco , Montenegro , Mozambique , Namibia , Nicaragua , Norway , Palestine, Peru , Poland , Portugal , Palestinian Territories (BV), Romania (changed to PR in 2015), Rwanda , San Marino , Slovenia , South Africa , South Sudan , Spain , Sri Lanka , Sweden , Sudan , Switzerland , Tunisia , Turkey , and Uruguay (DSV).

  3. 3.

    Electoral Systems in Context by Åsa von Schoultz (2016).

  4. 4.

    THE CONSTITUTIONALCOURT OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA No. U-X-6472/2010 Zagreb (December 8, 2010) available at https://www.usud.hr

  5. 5.

    THE CONSTITUTIONALCOURT OF THE REPUBLIC OF CROATIA No. U-X-6472/2010 Zagreb (December 8, 2010) at para 5 available at https://www.usud.hr

  6. 6.

    REPUBLIC OF CROATIA PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS 2015 OSCE/ODIHR NEEDS ASSESSMENT MISSION REPORT (September 2015); and HDZ wins election in six constituencies, EBL News (Croatia ) (September 12, 2016).

  7. 7.

    For the 2015 election, seats were reallocated by the Interior Ministry. The seats in the national legislature were increased by three in the electoral constituency of Attica (from 12 to 15 seats), by two in Athens second electoral constituency (which is the country’s most populous, with a total of 1,428,759 voters), and by one in Piraeus first electoral constituency (from 5 to 6 seats), Thesprotia electoral constituency (from 1 to 2 seats), Magnesia electoral constituency (from 5 to 6 seats) and the Cyclades electoral constituency (from 3 to 4). At the same time, the parliamentary seats of Athens first electoral constituency were reduced by three (from 17 to 14 seats), while by one in Achaea electoral constituency (from 9 to 8 seats), Aetoloacarnania (from 8 to 7 seats), Boeotia electoral constituency (from 4 to 3), Karditsa electoral constituency (from 5 to 4), Serres electoral constituency (from 7 to 6) and Trikala electoral constituency (from 5 to 4). The Greek Parliamentary Seats and Preference Crosses per Constituency by Aggeios Skordas, at https://greece.greekreporter.com (January 16, 2015).

  8. 8.

    A list of countries using PR in fixed districts or special multi-member districts appears in a previous footnote and in Appendix B.

  9. 9.

    Although fewer countries use all single-member districts than use PR elections, there are more persons in these countries.

  10. 10.

    See, www.elections.ca; To End Gerrymandering: The Canadian Model for Reforming the Congressional Redistricting Process in the United States by Anthony J. Gaughan, 41 CAPITAL UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW 999 (2013). Understanding Electoral Reform: Electoral Reform and Direct Democracy in Canada : When Citizens Become Involved by Lawrence LeDuc, 34 West European Politics 551–567 (Issue 3, 2011), published online (April 11, 2011).The Electoral Boundary Revolution in Canada by R. K. Carty, 15 American Review of Canadian Studies 273 (Issue 3, 1985), published online: (November 10, 2009); COMMISIONED RIDINGS DESIGNING CANADA’S ELECTION DISTRICTS by John C, Courtney, McGill-Queen’s Univ. Press (2001).

  11. 11.

    The nations that use FPTP elections include American Samoa , Anguilla, Azerbaijan , Bahamas , Bangladesh , Barbados , Belize , Bermuda, Botswana , Canada, Cook Islands, Cote d’Ivoire, Dominica (nine appointed), Egypt , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Gambia , Ghana , Grenada , India , Jamaica , Japan , Kenya (12 appointed), Laos, Liberia , Maldives , Myanmar (25% appointed by military), Malaysia , Malta , Marshall Islands, Malawi , Monserrat, Mozambique , Micronesia , Nigeria , Niue, Northern Mariana Islands, Oman, Pakistan (with PR for seats set aside for women and non-Muslims), Samoa, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines (six appointed), Seychelles , Sierra Leone , Singapore (nine appointed by parties), Solomon Islands , Swaziland, Tanzania (with 75 seats set aside for women chosen by PR; and some members appointed), Uganda , United Kingdom , United States , British Virgin Islands, U.S. Virgin Islands, Yemen , Zambia , and Zimbabwe (some appointed).

  12. 12.

    The nations that use a TRS include: Bahrain , Belarus , Republic of Congo (Brazzaville), Cuba , France , French Polynesia, Gabon , Haiti , Iran, Kiribati , Mali , New Caledonia, Tokelau (protectorate of New Zealand ), Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan , Vanuatu , Wallis and Fortuna, and Viet Nam . Many of these are former French colonies.

  13. 13.

    Reference re Prov. Electoral Boundaries (Sask) [1991] 2 S.C.R. 158, 183 (Can.).

  14. 14.

    See, Chap. 14; and The Politics of Redistricting in Japan : A Contradiction between Equal Population and Respect for Local Government Boundaries by Tashimasha Moriwaki at page 107 in Redistricting in Comparative Perspective by Lisa Handley & Bernard Grofman, eds., Oxford Univ. Press (2008).

  15. 15.

    See, The Electoral System of the Russian Federation by Bill Bowring, DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR EXTERNAL POLICIES OF THE UNION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT (2011); Russian Parliamentary Election Report on Duma Elections in 2016, OSCE/ODIR (2016); and Putin Changes September Election Rules To Prop Up His ‘United Russia’ Party by Patrick Roderick Gregory, Forbes (Mar 14, 2016).

  16. 16.

    See, Electoral Redistricting in Ireland by John Coakley at page 155 in Redistricting in Comparative Perspective by Lisa Handley & Bernard Grofman, eds., Oxford Univ. Press (2008).

  17. 17.

    Electoral Distortion Despite Redistricting by Independent Commissions: The British Case, 1950–2005 by Ron Johnston, Charles Puttie, and David Rossiter at page 205 in Redistricting in Comparative Perspective by Lisa Handley & Bernard Grofman, eds., Oxford Univ. Press (2008); PUTTING VOTERS IN THEIR PLACE by Ron Johnson & Charles Pattie, Oxford Univ. Press (2006).

  18. 18.

    See, South-East Asia: lots of elections, not so much democracy by Banyan, Economist (May 26th 2018) Democracy in Southeast Asia: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects, Electoral Integrity, a Kofi Annan Foundation Initiative (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia September 2–3, 2017); East Asia and the Receding Tide of the Third Wave of Democracy by Larry Diamond (Keynote Speech), International Conference on Democracy in East Asia and Taiwan, Global Perspective (2011) available at ldiamond@Stanford.edu

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  1. University of Texas Law School, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Steve Bickerstaff

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Bickerstaff, S. (2020). Gerrymandering Within Fixed Districts. In: Election Systems and Gerrymandering Worldwide. Studies in Choice and Welfare. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30837-7_9

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