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Power in International Relations: Understandings and Varieties

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Soft Power

Part of the book series: Global Power Shift ((GLOBAL))

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Abstract

In this chapter, the author first addresses the centrality and complexity of the phenomenon of power in international relations. Starting from definitional approximations to the five-letter word, he discusses various conceptions of power and identifies its different varieties. In doing so, he subscribes to the established dichotomy of hard and soft power in international affairs today. Furthermore, the relational and contextual nature of power are established and different approaches to its measurement explored.

In the chapter’s second major part, the author addresses the notion of soft power. To that end, he explores the terminological origins of the concept and reveals its deep historical roots, which can be traced back to classical writings in Chinese as well as Western philosophical and political thought. Subsequently, the author discusses the ways the forces of attraction take effect in international relations and examines the concept against the backdrop of International Relations theories, crucially emphasizing its non-normative nature. Finally, the chapter addresses major points of criticism directed toward the concept of soft power.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2004), p. 1.

  2. 2.

    For the centrality of power in the social sciences and particularly International Relations see, for example, David A. Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” in Handbook of International Relations, eds. Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse, and Beth A. Simmons (Los Angeles, Cal.: SAGE Publications, 2013), pp. 273–274 & p. 280; Mark Haugaard and Stewart R. Clegg, “Introduction: Why Power is the Central Concept of the Social Sciences,” in The SAGE Handbook of Power, eds. Stewart R. Clegg and Mark Haugaard (London: SAGE Publications, 2009), p. 1; Joshua S. Goldstein and Jon C. Pevehouse, International Relations (New York, N.Y.: Pearson Longman, 2014), p. 45; Juliet Kaarbo and James Lee Ray, Global Politics (Boston, Mass.: Wadsworth, 2011), p. 98; Enrico Fels, “Power Shift? Power in International Relations and the Allegiance of Middle Powers,” in Power in the 21st Century: International Security and International Political Economy in a Changing World, eds. Enrico Fels, Jan-Frederik Kremer, and Katharina Kronenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2012), p. 5; and Geraldo Zahran and Leonardo Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power: Implications of a Conceptual Change,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 16.

  3. 3.

    Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, “Power in International Politics,” International Organization, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Winter 2005), p. 39.

  4. 4.

    William Inboden, “What is Power? And How Much of It Does America Have?,” The American Interest, Vol. 5, No. 2 (November/December 2009), p. 15.

  5. 5.

    Daniel W. Drezner, “Does Obama Have a Grand Strategy? Why We Need Doctrines in Uncertain Times,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 58, No. 4 (July/August 2011), p. 59.

  6. 6.

    Janice Bially Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft: Representational Force and the Sociolinguistic Construction of Attraction in World Politics,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2005), p. 587.

  7. 7.

    Leslie H. Gelb, Power Rules: How Common Sense Can Rescue American Foreign Policy (New York, N.Y.: HarperCollins, 2009), p. 26.

  8. 8.

    See, for example, Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 96–97 and Stefano Guzzini, Power, Realism and Constructivism (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013), p. 47.

  9. 9.

    R. S. Zaharna, The Cultural Awakening in Public Diplomacy, CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, Paper 4, 2012 (Los Angeles, Cal.: Figueroa Press, 2012), p. 42.

  10. 10.

    Paul Pierson, “Power and Path Dependence,” in Advances in Comparative-Historical Analysis, eds. James Mahoney and Kathleen Thelen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), p. 124.

  11. 11.

    Stefano Guzzini, “The Concept of Power: A Constructivist Analysis,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2005), p. 508.

  12. 12.

    Kenneth N. Waltz, “Reflections on Theory of International Politics: A Response to My Critics,” in Neorealism and its Critics, ed. Robert O. Keohane (New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 333; Barnett and Duvall, “Power in International Politics,” p. 66.

  13. 13.

    Steven Lukes, “Power and the Battle for the Hearts and Minds,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2005), p. 484.

  14. 14.

    Steven Lukes, “Power,” in The Oxford Companion to International Relations, ed. Joel Krieger, Volume 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), p. 197.

  15. 15.

    Xuewu Gu, “Global Power Shift: Soft, Hard and Structural Power,” in Die Gestaltung der Globalität: Annährungen an Begriff, Deutung und Methodik, eds. Ludger Kühnhardt and Tilman Mayer (Bonn: Zentrum für Europäische Integrationsforschung, Discussion Paper C198, 2010), p. 53.

  16. 16.

    Byung-Chul Han, Was ist Macht? (Stuttgart: Reclam, 2005), p. 7.

  17. 17.

    Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” p. 273 & p. 281.

  18. 18.

    Anthologies compiling approaches on power in international relations from different theoretical perspectives are numerous, e.g., Richard J. Stoll and Michael D. Ward, eds., Power in World Politics (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1989); Mark Haugaard, Power: A Reader (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002); Felix Berenskoetter and M. J. Williams, eds., Power in World Politics (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2007); Stewart R. Clegg and Mark Haugaard, eds., The SAGE Handbook of Power (London: SAGE Publications, 2009); Keith Dowding, ed., Encyclopedia of Power (Thousand Oaks, Cal.: SAGE Publications, 2011).

  19. 19.

    Oxford Dictionary of English, ed. Angus Stevenson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 1393.

  20. 20.

    Wilfried Nippel, “The Roman Notion of Auctoritas,” in The Concept of Authority: A Multidisciplinary Approach, From Epistemology to the Social Sciences, eds. Pasquale Pasquino and Pamela Harris (Rome: Fondazione Adriano Olivetti, 2007), pp. 13–34. See below, Sect. 2.5.1.2.

  21. 21.

    Xuewu Gu, Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen: Einführung (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2018), p. 59.

  22. 22.

    Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, With an Essay by the Late W. G. Pogson Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1909), p. 66.

  23. 23.

    John Locke, “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding,” in Great Books of the Western World, ed. Robert Maynard Hutchins, Volume 35 (Chicago, Ill.: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1952), p. 178.

  24. 24.

    Alexander Hamilton, “Federalist No. 33,” in The Federalist Papers, ed. Clinton Rossiter (New York, N.Y.: Signet Classic, 2003), p. 198.

  25. 25.

    Bertrand Russell, Power: A New Social Analysis (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1938), p. 35.

  26. 26.

    Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York, N.Y.: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 30.

  27. 27.

    Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis (New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 205.

  28. 28.

    Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, Translated by A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons, Edited with an Introduction by Talcott Parsons (New York, N.Y.: Free Press, 1947), p. 152.

  29. 29.

    Xuewu Gu, “Strukturelle Macht: Eine dritte Machtquelle?,” Österreichische Zeitschrift für Politikwissenschaft, Vol. 41, No. 3 (2012), p. 266.

  30. 30.

    See below, Sect. 2.2.

  31. 31.

    Robert A. Dahl, “The Concept of Power,” Behavioral Science, Vol. 2, No. 3 (1957), pp. 202–203.

  32. 32.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 32. See also Ernest J. Wilson III, “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power,” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol. 616, Public Diplomacy in a Changing World (March 2008), p. 114.

  33. 33.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990), pp. 25–26.

  34. 34.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 2.

  35. 35.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” in Power in World Politics, eds. Felix Berenskoetter and M. J. Williams (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2008), p. 163.

  36. 36.

    Barnett and Duvall, “Power in International Politics,” p. 40 & p. 44. See also Wilson, “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power,” p. 37.

  37. 37.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Soft Power and Higher Education,” Forum Futures 2005, EDUCAUSE, January 1, 2005, online at: https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ffp0502s.pdf (accessed February 19, 2015).

  38. 38.

    Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, p. 152.

  39. 39.

    Russell, Power, pp. 10–11.

  40. 40.

    Russell, Power, pp. 35–36.

  41. 41.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 2.

  42. 42.

    However, as we shall see later, the distinction between the two is not always as clear-cut in the field as it may appear on paper and with the introduction of structural power, a third dimension has been put forward. Additionally, there are further criteria along whose lines different varieties of power may be distinguished (e.g., relational and resource-based understandings of power). For a recent discussion on the dichotomy of power, see Xuewu Gu, “Strukturelle Macht,” pp. 259–276.

  43. 43.

    Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (New York, N.Y.: Vintage Books, 1987), p. xv. See also A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954), p. xxix.

  44. 44.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 5.

  45. 45.

    James Madison, “Helvidius Number I,” in The Pacificus-Helvidius Debates of 1793-1794: Toward the Completion of the American Founding, Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, Edited and with an Introduction by Morton J. Frisch (Indianapolis, Ind.: Liberty Fund, 2007), p. 62.

  46. 46.

    John J. Mearsheimer, “Anarchy and the Struggle for Power,” in Essential Readings in World Politics, eds. Karen Mingst and Jack Snyder (New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton and Company, 2008), p. 68.

  47. 47.

    Jamie Gaskarth, British Foreign Policy: Crises, Conflicts and Future Challenges (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013), p. 120.

  48. 48.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 4.

  49. 49.

    See, for example, Waltz, Man, the State and War, pp. 159–223.

  50. 50.

    Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 353.

  51. 51.

    Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 356.

  52. 52.

    Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” p. 279.

  53. 53.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 26. See also Su Changhe, “Soft Power,” in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, eds. Andrew F. Cooper, Jorge Heine, and Ramesh Thakur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 551.

  54. 54.

    Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” p. 277.

  55. 55.

    Gu, Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen, p. 84.

  56. 56.

    Timo Kivimäki, “‘Reason’ and ‘Power’ in Territorial Disputes: The South China Sea,” Asian Journal of Social Science, Vol. 30, No. 3 (2002), p. 526.

  57. 57.

    A. F. K. Organski, World Politics (New York, N.Y.: Alfred Knopf, 1958), pp. 103–104.

  58. 58.

    Peter Morriss, Power: A Philosophical Analysis (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002), p. 18. See also Edward Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy: Developing a ‘Strategic’ Concept of Power,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), pp. 45–46.

  59. 59.

    Han, Was ist Macht?, p. 34. See also James MacGregor Burns, Leadership (New York, N.Y.: HarperCollins, 2010), p. 11 and David A. Baldwin, “Interdependence and Power: A Conceptual Analysis,” International Organization, Vol. 34, No. 4 (Autumn 1980), p. 496.

  60. 60.

    Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, p. 17.

  61. 61.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, pp. 166–168.

  62. 62.

    Organski, World Politics, pp. 96–98.

  63. 63.

    Nye, The Future of Power, p. 84.

  64. 64.

    Nye, Soft Power, pp. 2–4; see also Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 27.

  65. 65.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 34.

  66. 66.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 220. See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr. “Hard, Soft, andSmart Power,” in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, eds. Andrew F. Cooper, Jorge Heine, and Ramesh Thakur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 561.

  67. 67.

    Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 221.

  68. 68.

    Verena Andrei and Volker Rittberger, “Macht, Interessen und Normen: Auswärtige Kulturpolitik und Außenpolitiktheorien illustriert am Beispiel der deutschen auswärtigen Sprachpolitik,” in Kultur und Außenpolitik: Handbuch für Wissenschaft und Praxis, ed. Kurt-Jürgen Maaß (Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2015), p. 15.

  69. 69.

    Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” p. 277.

  70. 70.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 560.

  71. 71.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 27.

  72. 72.

    Richard Ned Lebow, A Cultural Theory of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 551.

  73. 73.

    Lukes, “Power and the Battle for the Hearts and Minds,” p. 478.

  74. 74.

    Adrian Murdoch, Rome’s Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest (Stroud: The History Press, 2008), pp. 5–6. See also Peter S. Wells, The Barbarians Speak: How the Conquered Peoples Shaped Roman Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 91–92 and Peter S. Wells, The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest (New York, N.Y.: Norton & Company, 2003), pp. 208–209.

  75. 75.

    For a fascinating study of the 1415 Battle of Agincourt, see Anne Curry, The Battle of Agincourt: Sources & Interpretations (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2000); for estimates of respective troop strengths, see Anne Curry, Henry V: Playboy Prince to Warrior King (London: Penguin Books, 2018), p. 66.

  76. 76.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 12.

  77. 77.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 560.

  78. 78.

    These insights shall explicitly be taken into account with the subsequent introduction of the soft power taxonomy.

  79. 79.

    Montesquieu, Reflections on the Causes of the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire (London: Geo. B. Whittaker, 1825), p. 17.

  80. 80.

    Russell, Power, p. 35.

  81. 81.

    Organski, World Politics, p. 94.

  82. 82.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 1.

  83. 83.

    The term “Theory of Everything” was coined by John Ellis in 1986; John Ellis, “The Superstring: Theory of Everything, or of Nothing?,” Nature, Vol. 323, No. 6089 (1986), pp. 595–598.

  84. 84.

    Mark Leonard, What Does China Think? (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2008), pp. 83–85.

  85. 85.

    Johann Peter Süßmilch, Die göttliche Ordnung in den Veränderungen des menschlichen Geschlechts, aus der Geburt, dem Tode und der Fortpflanzung desselben erwiesen (Göttingen: Jürgen Chrom Verlag, 1988).

  86. 86.

    See, for example, Ferdinand Friedensburg, Die mineralischen Bodenschätze als weltpolitische und militärische Machtfaktoren (Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke Verlag, 1936); F. Clifford German, “A Tentative Evaluation of World Power,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 4, No. 1 (1960), pp. 138–144; Wilhelm Fucks, Formeln zur Macht: Prognosen über Völker, Wirtschaft, Potentiale (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1965); Norman Z. Alcock and Alan G. Newcombe, “The Perception of National Power,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 14, No. 3 (September 1970), pp. 335–343; J. David Singer and Melvin Small, The Wages of War, 1816-1965: A Statistical Handbook (New York, N.Y. John Wiley, 1972); Jacek Kugler and William Domke, “Comparing the Strength of Nations,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 19, No. 1 (April 1986), p. 39–69; Ray S. Cline, The Power of Nations in the 1990s: A Strategic Assessment (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994); Arvind Virmani, “VIP2: A Simple Measure of a Nation’s (Natural) Global Power,” Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, July 2005, online at: http://www.icrier.org/pdf/VIPP4.pdf (accessed July 24, 2014).

  87. 87.

    Enrico Fels, Shifting Power in Asia-Pacific? The Rise of China, Sino-US Competition and Regional Middle Power Allegiance (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017).

  88. 88.

    Inboden, “What is Power?,” p. 16 & p. 27.

  89. 89.

    Inboden, “What is Power?,” p. 19 & p. 16.

  90. 90.

    For example, Stephen Hawking initially subscribed to the possibility of finding “an ultimate theory” but later changed his mind; Stephen Hawking, “Gödel and the End of Physics,” University of Cambridge Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, July 20, 2002, online at: http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/events/strings02/dirac/hawking/ (accessed June 17, 2014).

  91. 91.

    Carl von Clausewitz, for example, denominated territorial size and population as the sources of all (military) power; Carl von Clausewitz, On War, Translated by Colonel J. J. Graham. New and Revised Edition with Introduction and Notes by Colonel F. N. Maude, Volume 1 (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1918), p. 9.

  92. 92.

    See, for example, Friedrich der Große, “Fürstenspiegel, oder Unterweisung des Königs für den jungen Herzog Karl Eugen von Württemberg,” in Ausgewählte Schriften, ed. Ulrike-Christine Sander (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 2011), p. 48 and Friedrich der Große, “Abriß der preußischen Regierung und der Grundsätze, auf denen sie beruht, nebst einigen politischen Betrachtungen,” in Ausgewählte Schriften, ed. Ulrike-Christine Sander (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer, 2011), p. 73.

  93. 93.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 17.

  94. 94.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Foreword,” in Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and National Assets of Japan and the United States, eds. Watanabe Yasushi and David L. McConnell (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2008), p. xiii.

  95. 95.

    Organski, World Politics, pp. 103–104.

  96. 96.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 31.

  97. 97.

    Niall Ferguson, “Think Again: Power,” Foreign Policy, No. 134 (January/February 2003), p. 18.

  98. 98.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 31. In his later writings, Joseph Nye generally omitted the second part of the formulation (“or have agreed to a system that produces such effects”), a formulation which is reminiscent of the concept of structural power put forth by Susan Strange, as shall be discussed below.

  99. 99.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 31.

  100. 100.

    First predominantly labeled “co-optive power,” the term “soft power” stuck in public, political, and academic debate. While in Bound to Lead no index entry exists for “soft power,” the publication of an eponymous article in Foreign Policy in the autumn of 1990 heralded the ultimate triumph of the term.

  101. 101.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 17.

  102. 102.

    Matthew Fraser, Weapons of Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire (New York, N.Y.: St. Martin’s Press, 2003), p. 10.

  103. 103.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 565.

  104. 104.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” pp. 12–13.

  105. 105.

    For a brief “historiography” of the concept, see Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” pp. 12–16.

  106. 106.

    Robert W. Cox, “Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2 (1981), p. 128; Cox’ emphasis.

  107. 107.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” Palgrave Communications, Vol. 3 (February 21, 2017), online at: https://www.nature.com/articles/palcomms20178 (accessed August 14, 2017), p. 2; Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 162. See also Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 13; Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy,” p. 32; and Christopher Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p.

  108. 108.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Information Revolution and Power,” Current History, Vol. 133, No. 759 (2014), p. 20. For an almost word-for-word quotation, see also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “China’s Soft Power Strategy,” in Bridging the Trust Divide: Cultural Diplomacy and Fostering Understanding Between China and the West, eds. Helmut K. Anheier and Bernhard Lorentz (Essen: Stiftung Mercator, 2012), p. 30.

  109. 109.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. ix.

  110. 110.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Is the American Century Over? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015), p. 20.

  111. 111.

    Fareed Zakaria, “The Future of American Power: How America Can Survive the Rise of the Rest,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 3 (May/June 2008), p. 40.

  112. 112.

    Josef Joffe, “The Default Power: The False Prophecy of America’s Decline,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 88, No. 5 (September/October 2009), p. 21.

  113. 113.

    Charles Dickens, The Life and Adventures of Martin Chuzzlewit (London: Chapman and Hall, 1844), p. 203; Dickens’ emphasis.

  114. 114.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Future of American Power: Dominance and Decline in Perspective,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 89, No. 6 (November/December 2010), p. 3. See also Samuel P. Huntington, “The United States: Decline or Renewal?,” Adelphi Papers, Vol. 29, No. 235 (1989), pp. 63–80 and Zakaria, “The Future of American Power,” p. 40.

  115. 115.

    Not for no reason did Country Music singer-songwriter Merle Haggard’s 1982 release “Are the Good Times Really Over (I Wish a Buck Was Still Silver)” about the pre-Vietnam War and pre-Watergate United States become a hit both in the United States and Canada and—having the finger on the pulse—was rewarded Academy of Country Music Song of the Year for 1982; Paul Kingsbury, Michael McCall, and John W. Rumble, eds., The Encyclopedia of Country Music (New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2012), p. 616.

  116. 116.

    Jimmy Carter, “Our Nation’s Past and Future: Address Accepting the Presidential Nomination at the Democratic National Convention in New York City,” New York, N.Y., July 15, 1976, online at: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25953 (accessed September 5, 2017).

  117. 117.

    Terry Boswell and Albert Bergesen, “American Prospects in a Period of Hegemonic Decline and Economic Crisis,” in America’s Changing Role in the World System, eds. Terry Boswell and Albert Bergesen (New York, N.Y.: Praeger, 1987), p. 3.

  118. 118.

    Jimmy Carter, “Energy and National Goals: Address to the Nation,” Washington, D.C., July 15, 1979, in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1979, Book II – June 23 to December 31, 1979 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1980), p. 1237.

  119. 119.

    James T. Patterson, Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore (New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 202. See also Stephan G. Bierling, “Das Ende des langen Booms? Die amerikanische Wirtschaft unter Bill Clinton und George W. Bush,” in Die Clinton-Präsidentschaft: Ein Rückblick, eds. Stephan G. Bierling and Reinhard C. Meier-Walser (München: Hanns-Seidel-Stiftung, 2001), p. 27 and James Mann, Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet (New York, N.Y.: Viking, 2004), pp. 160–164.

  120. 120.

    Mann, Rise of the Vulcans, p. 160.

  121. 121.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 22.

  122. 122.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr. “Soft Power,” Foreign Policy, No. 80 (Autumn 1990), p. 153.

  123. 123.

    Nye, “Soft Power,” p. 155.

  124. 124.

    Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy,” p. 32.

  125. 125.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. ix.

  126. 126.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 7.

  127. 127.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 52.

  128. 128.

    Gregory F. Treverton, America, Germany, and the Future of Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 208.

  129. 129.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, pp. 37–48.

  130. 130.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 199.

  131. 131.

    For recent discussions on the topic of American decline see Aaron L. Friedberg, “Same Old Song: What the Declinists (and Triumphalists) Miss,” The American Interest, Vol. 5, No. 2 (November/December 2009), pp. 28–35; Robert Kagan, “Not Fade Away,” The New Republic, January 11, 2012, online at: http://www.newrepublic.com/article/politics/magazine/99521/america-world-power-declinism (accessed February 10, 2015); Tom Donilon, “We’re No. 1 (and We’re Going to Stay That Way),” Foreign Policy, July 3, 2014, online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/07/03/were-no-1-and-were-going-to-stay-that-way/ (accessed February 10, 2015); Hal Brands, “The Era of American Primacy is Far from Over,” The National Interest, August 24, 2016, online at: http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-skeptics/the-era-american-primacy-far-over-17465 (accessed August 25, 2016). Expressively, in July/August 2014 Foreign Policy dedicated a whole issue to the topic of American decline that included Elbridge Colby and Paul Lettow, “Have We Hit Peak America? The Sources of U.S. Power and the Path to National Renaissance,” Foreign Policy, No. 207 (July/August 2014), pp. 54–63.

  132. 132.

    Andreas Rödder, 21.0: Eine kurze Geschichte der Gegenwart (München: C. H. Beck, 2015), p. 41.

  133. 133.

    For Reagan’s 1982 speech and detailed study on its significance, see Robert C. Rowland and John M. Jones, Reagan at Westminster: Foreshadowing the End of the Cold War (College Station, Tex.: Texas A&M University Press, 2010).

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    Ronald Reagan, “Remarks on the Occasion of 83rd Birthday Gala,” Simi Valley, Cal., February 3, 1994, online at: http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/ronaldreagan83rdbirthday.htm (accessed November 16, 2015).

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    Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History,” The National Interest, No. 16 (Summer 1989), pp. 3–18. It is an interesting observation that Fukuyama’s widely-noticed article had been published before the Berlin Wall came down. Three years later, Fukuyama elaborated his historico-philosophical view in Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York, N.Y.: Simon & Schuster, 1992).

  136. 136.

    Francis Fukuyama, “The Neoconservative Moment,” The National Interest, No. 76 (Summer 2004), p. 60.

  137. 137.

    Samuel P. Huntington, “Democracy’s Third Wave,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Spring 1991), pp. 12–34 and Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).

  138. 138.

    John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, The Emergence of Noopolitik: Toward an American Information Strategy (Santa Monica, Cal.: RAND Corporation, 1999), p. 23.

  139. 139.

    Andreas Wirsching, Der Preis der Freiheit: Geschichte Europas in unserer Zeit (München: C. H. Beck, 2012), p. 28.

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    Freedom House, “Freedom in the World: Electoral Democracies,” online at: https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Electoral%20Democracy%20Numbers,%20FIW%201989-2013.pdf (accessed August 15, 2018).

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    Joseph Duffey, “How Globalization Became U.S. Public Diplomacy at the End of the Cold War,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 331.

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    Hans-Peter Schwarz, “America, Germany, and the Atlantic Community after the Cold War,” in The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1990: A Handbook, Volume II: 1968-1990, ed. Detlef Junker, associated editors Philipp Gassert, Wilfried Mausbach, and David B. Morris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 547.

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    Tilman Mayer, Robert Meyer, Lazaros Miliopoulos, H. Peter Ohly, and Erich Weede, “Globalisierung im Fokus von Politik, Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft: Einführende Betrachtungen,” in Globalisierung im Fokus von Politik, Wirtschaft, Gesellschaft: Eine Bestandsaufnahme, eds. Tilman Mayer, Robert Meyer, Lazaros Miliopoulos, H. Peter Ohly, and Erich Weede (Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2011), pp. 9–13. See also Rödder, 21.0, pp. 42–44.

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    Theodore Levitt, “The Globalization of Markets,” Harvard Business Review, May 1983, online at: https://hbr.org/1983/05/the-globalization-of-markets (accessed September 28, 2015).

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    Stanley J. Paliwoda and Stephanie Slater, “Globalisation Through the Kaleidoscope,” International Marketing Review, Vol. 26, No. 4/5 (2009), p. 374. See also Xuewu Gu, “Ist Globalität gestaltbar?,” in Bonner Enzyklopädie der Globalität, eds. Ludger Kühnhardt and Tilman Mayer (Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 2017), pp. 1528–1529.

  146. 146.

    Joseph Duffey, “How Globalization Became U.S. Public Diplomacy at the End of the Cold War,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 331.

  147. 147.

    Ludger Kühnhardt, “Globality: Concept and Impact,” in The Bonn Handbook of Globality, Volume 1, eds. Ludger Kühnhardt and Tilman Mayer (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2019), p. 21. For a similar view, see Konrad H. Jarausch, “Intellectual Dissonance: German-American (Mis-)Understandings in the 1990s,” in The German-American Encounter: Conflict and Cooperation between Two Cultures, 1800-2000, eds. Frank Trommler and Elliott Shore (New York, N.Y.: Berghahn Books, 2001), p. 224.

  148. 148.

    Rüdiger Robert, “Globalisierung als Herausforderung für das politische System,” in Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Politisches System und Globalisierung, Eine Einführung, ed. Rüdiger Robert (Münster: Waxmann, 2007), p. 28.

  149. 149.

    Ludger Kühnhardt, Von der ewigen Suche nach Frieden: Immanuel Kants Vision und Europas Wirklichkeit (Bonn: Bouvier Verlag, 1996), p. 2.

  150. 150.

    Internet Live Stats, “Total Number of Websites,” online at: http://www.internetlivestats.com/total-number-of-websites/ (accessed August 2, 2018). See also Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Future of Power (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2011), pp. 114–115.

  151. 151.

    Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman, “Negotiating International History and Politics,” in Bridges and Boundaries: Historians, Political Scientists, and the Study of International Politics, eds. Colin Elman and Miriam Fendius Elman (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2001), p. 34. See also Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, “Power, Globalization, and the End of the Cold War: Reevaluating a Landmark Case for Ideas,” International Security, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Winter 2000/2001), pp. 5–53. For a discussion of international relations theory, particularly (neo-)realism and the end of the Cold War, see, for example, Richard Ned Lebow, “The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism,” International Organization, Vol. 48, No. 2 (Spring 1994), pp. 249–277; Paul W. Schroeder, “Historical Reality vs. Neorealist Theory,” International Security, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Summer 1994), pp. 108–148; William C. Wohlforth, “Realism and the End of the Cold War,” International Security, Vol. 19, No. 3 (Winter 1994/1995), pp. 91–129; Richard Ned Lebow and Thomas Risse-Kappen, eds. International Relations Theory and the End of the Cold War (New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press, 1995); Jeffrey W. Legro and Andrew Moravcsik, “Is Anybody Still a Realist?.” International Security, Vol. 24, No. 2 (Fall 1999), pp. 5–55; and, providing a counter-perspective, Kenneth N. Waltz, “Structural Realism after the End of the Cold War,” International Security, Vol. 25, No. 1 (Summer 2000), pp. 5–41.

  152. 152.

    Alexander Wendt, “Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics,” International Organization, Vol. 46, No. 2 (Spring 1992), pp. 391–425.

  153. 153.

    Elman and Elman, “Negotiating International History and Politics,” pp. 32–33. See also Brooks and Wohlforth, “Power, Globalization, and the End of the Cold War,” p. 5.

  154. 154.

    Nye, “Soft Power,” p. 170.

  155. 155.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 20.

  156. 156.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 13.

  157. 157.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. ix.

  158. 158.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 7.

  159. 159.

    Admittedly, Giles Scott-Smith argued that “[t]he genealogy of the term ‘soft power’ stretches back several decades,” but still he does not expand on any details; Giles Scott-Smith, “Soft Power in an Era of US Decline,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 166.

  160. 160.

    Robert E. Meagher, “A Man Is Defined by His Longings,” The New York Times, October 12, 1971, p. L43; emphasis added.

  161. 161.

    Robert Nisbet, Twilight of Authority (New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 223.

  162. 162.

    Nisbet, Twilight of Authority, pp. 226–227; emphasis added.

  163. 163.

    Anatole Broyard, “Book of The Times: Human vs. Humanitarian,” The New York Times, December 22, 1975, p. L27.

  164. 164.

    Robert Nisbet, “The Twilight of Authority,” The Public Interest, Vol. 15 (Spring 1969), p. 5.

  165. 165.

    Nancy Snow, “Rethinking Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 4. See also Kostas Ifantis, “Soft Power: Overcoming the Limits of a Concept,” in Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft, ed. B. J. C. McKercher (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), p. 449.

  166. 166.

    Su, “Soft Power,” p. 544.

  167. 167.

    John Krige, “Technological Leadership and American Soft Power,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 123.

  168. 168.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. ix. See also Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 566.

  169. 169.

    Nye, “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” p. 2.

  170. 170.

    Simon Anholt, “Soft Power,” Internationale Politik (January/February 2014), p. 49.

  171. 171.

    Jean-Marc F. Blanchard and Fujia Lu, “Thinking Hard about Soft Power: A Review and Critique of the Literature on China and Soft Power,” Asian Perspective, Vol. 36, No. 4 (2012), p. 567; Su, “Soft Power,” p. 545.

  172. 172.

    Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 446.

  173. 173.

    Quoted in Mark Kilbane, “Military Psychological Operations as Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 187.

  174. 174.

    Xuewu Gu, Die Große Mauer in den Köpfen: China, der Westen und die Suche nach Verständigung (Hamburg: Edition Körber-Stiftung, 2014), p. 38.

  175. 175.

    M. Tullius Cicero, Über die Gesetze: De Legibus/Stoische Paradoxien: Paradoxa Stoicum, Edited, Translated, and Annotated by Rainer Nickel (München: Artemis & Winkler, 1994), p. 176–177 (Cic. Leg. III, 28).

  176. 176.

    M. Tullius Cicero, Der Staat: De Re Publica, Edited and Translated by Rainer Nickel (Mannheim: Artemis & Winkler, 2010), pp. 198–207 (Cic. Rep. II, 55-61).

  177. 177.

    Christoph R. Hatscher, Charisma und Res Publica: Max Webers Herrschaftssoziologie und die Römische Republik (Franz Steiner Verlag: Stuttgart, 2000), pp. 70–72; Nippel, “The Roman Notion of Auctoritas,” pp. 18–24; Richard Heinze, “Auctoritas,” Hermes, Vol. 60 (1925), p. 354. For the two varieties, see also Dietmar Hübner, “Der Ort der Macht: Potestas und auctoritas als Deutungslinien für Markt und Medien,” Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie, Vol. 58, No. 3 (2010), pp. 395–415.

  178. 178.

    Heinze, “Auctoritas,” p. 354.

  179. 179.

    Heinze, “Auctoritas,” pp. 354–356 & p. 362 & p. 366. See also Nippel, “The Roman Notion of Auctoritas,” pp. 22–23.

  180. 180.

    Heinze, “Auctoritas,” p. 348; Nippel, “The Roman Notion of Auctoritas,” pp. 27–31.

  181. 181.

    Augustus, Meine Taten: Res Gestae Divi Augusti, Edited by Ekkehard Weber (München: Heimeran Verlag, 1975), pp. 40–43 (Aug. RG 34).

  182. 182.

    Russell, Power, pp. 35–36.

  183. 183.

    Gu, “Strukturelle Macht,” p. 260. See Edward H. Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919-1939, An Introduction to the Theory of International Relations, Reissued with a New Introduction and Additional Material by Michael Cox (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), pp. 120–134.

  184. 184.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 162; emphasis added.

  185. 185.

    Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft,” p. 588. Geun Lee, “A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy,” The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 2009), p. 206 and Peter Baumann and Gisela Cramer, “Power, Soft or Deep? An Attempt at Constructive Criticism,” Las Torres de Lucca: International Journal of Political Philosophy, No. 10 (January-June 2017), p. 179.

  186. 186.

    Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft,” p. 588.

  187. 187.

    Baldwin, “Power and International Relations,” p. 289.

  188. 188.

    See, for example, Thomas S. Robertson, “The Process of Innovation and the Diffusion of Innovation,” Journal of Marketing, Vol. 31, No. 1 (January 1967), pp. 14–19.

  189. 189.

    Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 31.

  190. 190.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 5.

  191. 191.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. x.

  192. 192.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 7.

  193. 193.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 6.

  194. 194.

    The significance of attraction in world politics shall be elaborated upon below, see Sect. 3.3.

  195. 195.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. x.

  196. 196.

    Think, for example, the Tom Sawyer episode referred to in the preface of the work in hand.

  197. 197.

    Han, Was ist Macht?, p. 34 & p. 69.

  198. 198.

    Quoted in Edith Hamilton, The Greek Way (London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1993), p. 162.

  199. 199.

    Vincent Cronin, Napoleon: Eine Biographie (Hamburg: Classen Verlag, 1973), p. 261.

  200. 200.

    Quoted in Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of Prison (New York, N.Y.: Vintage Books, 1977), pp. 102–103.

  201. 201.

    Quoted in Patrick Riley, “The General Will Before Rousseau,” in Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Critical Assessment of Leading Political Philosophers, Volume III: Political Principles and Institutions, ed. John T. Scott (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006), p. 152.

  202. 202.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 7.

  203. 203.

    Zachary Keck, “The Hard Side of Soft Power,” The Diplomat, July 24, 2013, online at: http://thediplomat.com/2013/07/the-hard-side-of-soft-power/ (accessed June 1, 2016).

  204. 204.

    Russell, Power, pp. 35–36.

  205. 205.

    Russell, Power, p. 37.

  206. 206.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 25.

  207. 207.

    Eliot A. Cohen, “Presidents and Their Generals: A Conversation with Eliot Cohen,” The American Interest, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Autumn 2010), p. 14.

  208. 208.

    Peter van Ham, “Power, Public Diplomacy, and the Pax Americana,” in The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, ed. Jan Melissen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 52.

  209. 209.

    Janice Bially Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft: Representational Force and Attraction in World Politics,” in Power in World Politics, eds. Felix Berenskoetter and M.J. Williams (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2008), p. 100. See also Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 443. This observation is somewhat reminiscent of the proverb “When you’ve got ’em by the balls, their hearts and minds will follow.” The proverb has its origins in the Vietnam War era and rose to prominence by being on display on a plaque in the McLean, Virginia, home of Charles Colson, advisor to President Richard M. Nixon during the Watergate scandal; Charles C. Doyle, Wolfgang Mieder, and Fred Shapiro, The Dictionary of Modern Proverbs (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2012), p. 12.

  210. 210.

    Cynthia P. Schneider, “Culture Communicates: US Diplomacy at Work,” in The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, ed. Jan Melissen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 163.

  211. 211.

    Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Power and Interdependence in the Information Age,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5 (September/October 1998), p. 86.

  212. 212.

    Nye, Soft Power, pp. 7–8; Nye, The Future of Power, p. 21.

  213. 213.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 13.

  214. 214.

    Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 443.

  215. 215.

    Laura Roselle, Alister Miskimmon, and Ben O’Loughlin, “Strategic Narrative: A New Means to Understand Soft Power,” Media, War & Conflict, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2014), p. 73.

  216. 216.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 7.

  217. 217.

    Gitika Commuri, “‘Are You Pondering What I am Pondering?’ Understanding the Conditions Under Which States Gain and Loose Soft Power,” in Power in the 21st Century: International Security and International Political Economy in a Changing World, eds. Enrico Fels, Jan-Frederik Kremer, and Katharina Kronenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2012), pp. 46–48.

  218. 218.

    Walter Russell Mead, “America’s Sticky Power,” Foreign Policy, No. 141 (March/April 2004), pp. 46–53.

  219. 219.

    George S. Patton, War as I Knew It (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995), p. 64; emphasis added.

  220. 220.

    Joshua Kurlantzick, Charm Offensive: How China’s Soft Power is Transforming the World (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2007), pp. 227–228. See also Nye, “The War on Soft Power” and Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 564.

  221. 221.

    Krige “Technological Leadership and American Soft Power,” pp. 121–136.

  222. 222.

    Think, for example, of the military parade on Beijing’s Tiananmen Square on the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 2008, which included, among others, a march-past of a company of female militia wearing bright pink uniforms. The instance was brought to the appreciative author’s attention through Dr. Bernd Jakob of the Bundesakademie für Sicherheitspolitik.

  223. 223.

    Blanchard and Lu, “Thinking Hard about Soft Power,” p. 568.

  224. 224.

    van Ham, “Power, Public Diplomacy, and the Pax Americana,” p. 53.

  225. 225.

    For example, Western military interventions have played into the hands of both Beijing and Moscow in their quest to get political support from regional governments in Central Asia via the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). SCO member states thus seek to maintain autocratic regimes in fear of Western hard power usage that led to regime changes in other regions, which in consequence decreased Western political attractiveness and influence in Central Asia quite considerably; Enrico Fels, “Beyond Military Interventions? The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and its Quest for cuius regio, eius dicio,” in Military Interventions: Considerations from Philosophy and Political Science, eds. Christian Neuhäuser and Christoph Schuck (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2017), pp. 182–183.

  226. 226.

    Ali S. Wyne, “Public Opinion and Power,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 42.

  227. 227.

    van Ham, “Power, Public Diplomacy, and the Pax Americana,” p. 63.

  228. 228.

    See below, Sect. 3.3.

  229. 229.

    Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 443.

  230. 230.

    Markos Kounalakis and Andras Simonyi, The Hard Truth about Soft Power, CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, Paper 5, 2011 (Los Angeles, Cal.: Figueroa Press, 2011).

  231. 231.

    Walter Russell Mead, Power, Terror, Peace, and War: America’s Grand Strategy in a World at Risk (New York, N.Y.: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), pp. 21–55.

  232. 232.

    The origin of the term of smart power (a somewhat “generous” amalgamation of soft and hard power) is contested. Both Joseph S. Nye and Suzanne Nossel, then-U.S. Deputy Ambassador to the United Nations, claim to have introduced the term. Nye himself thanks Fen Hampson for the term and also recognizes Nossel’s use, of which he claims to have learned only after having used it himself; Nye, The Future of Power, p. 244, fn. 55. See also Suzanne Nossel, “Smart Power,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 2 (March/April 2004), pp. 131–142.

  233. 233.

    Nye, The Future of Power, p. 22. See also Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 224.

  234. 234.

    Nye, The Future of Power, pp. 207–234.

  235. 235.

    Nye, The Future of Power, p. xii. See also Nye, The Future of Power, p. 23 & p. 234; Nye, Soft Power, p. 32 & p. 147; and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Get Smart: Combining Hard and Soft Power,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 88, No. 4 (July/August 2009), pp. 160–163.

  236. 236.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 67.

  237. 237.

    Wilson, “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power,” p. 115.

  238. 238.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Power We Must Not Squander,” The New York Times, January 3, 2000, online at: http://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/03/opinion/the-power-we-must-not-squander.html (accessed October 10, 2015).

  239. 239.

    Nye, “The Future of Soft Power in US Foreign Policy,” p. 7.

  240. 240.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 25.

  241. 241.

    Giulio M. Gallarotti, Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 1.

  242. 242.

    Eytan Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol. 616, Public Diplomacy in a Changing World, No. 1 (March 2008), p. 62

  243. 243.

    Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” pp. 224–225.

  244. 244.

    Nye, “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” p. 2.

  245. 245.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 565. For the non-normative nature of soft power see below, Sect. 2.5.3.2.

  246. 246.

    Wilson, “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power,” p. 37.

  247. 247.

    Center for Strategic and International Studies, CSIS Commission onSmart Power: A Smarter, More Secure America (Washington, D.C.: The CSIS Press, 2007).

  248. 248.

    See, for example, Christian Whiton, Smart Power: Between Diplomacy and War (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2013).

  249. 249.

    Keck, “The Hard Side of Soft Power.” See, for example, Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Confirmation Hearing,” Washington, D.C., January 13, 2009, online at http://www.cfr.org/elections/transcript-hillary-clintons-confirmation-hearing/p18225 (accessed February 12, 2015); Hillary Rodham Clinton, “Leading Through Civilian Power,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 89, No. 6 (November/December 2010), p. 13; Hillary Rodham Clinton, “American Global Leadership: Remarks at the Center for American Progress,” Washington, D.C., October 12, 2011, online at: http://www.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2011/10/175340.htm (accessed February 12, 2015); and Hillary Rodham Clinton, Hard Choices (New York, N.Y.: Simon & Schuster, 2014), p. 33. Some, like Senator Jim Webb (D.-Va., 2007-2013), however saw the insistence on the term of smart power with mixed feelings. With reference to Clinton’s repeated usage of the term during her confirmation hearings, Webb thus argued, “I guess the phrase of the week is ‘smart power.’” And he continued, “I’ve been doing this a long time, in and out of government. People come up with different phrases;” quoted in Eric Etheridge, “How ‘Soft Power’ Got ‘Smart,’” The New York Times, January 14, 2009, online at: http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/14/how-soft-power-got-smart/ (accessed August 12, 2016).

  250. 250.

    Richard N. Haass, “13 International Relations Buzzwords That Need to Get Taken to the Woodshed,” Foreign Policy, February 3, 2017, online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/02/03/13-international-relations-buzzwords-that-need-to-get-taken-to-the-woodshed/ (accessed March 26, 2017).

  251. 251.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 58 & p. 67.

  252. 252.

    Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 225.

  253. 253.

    For a particularly elaborate take on smart power, see Giulio M. Gallarotti, “Smart Power: Definitions, Importance, and Effectiveness,” Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 38, No. 3 (2015), pp. 245–281.

  254. 254.

    Paul Furlong and David Marsh, “A Skin Not a Sweater: Ontology and Epistemology in Political Science,” in Theory and Methods in Political Science, eds. David Marsh and Gerry Stoker (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 184. See below for a more detailed discussion of different ontological and epistemological positions, Sect. 4.1.

  255. 255.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 559.

  256. 256.

    C. S. Lewis, The Chronicles of Narnia: Book 1, The Magician’s Nephew (New York, N.Y.: HarperTrophy, 1994), p. 148.

  257. 257.

    For (realist) criticism, see below, Sect. 2.5.4.

  258. 258.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 62 & p. 71.

  259. 259.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 73.

  260. 260.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 68.

  261. 261.

    Joseph S. Nye, “Neorealism and Neoliberalism,” World Politics, Vol. 40, No. 2 (January 1988), p. 251.

  262. 262.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 567.

  263. 263.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. xiii.

  264. 264.

    Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 170. See also Nye, “Soft Power,” p. 170 and Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 195.

  265. 265.

    Giles Scott-Smith, “Exchange Programs and Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 55.

  266. 266.

    Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis, pp. 120–134.

  267. 267.

    Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations, p. 162.

  268. 268.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 45.

  269. 269.

    See, for example, Andrei and Rittberger, “Macht, Interessen und Normen,” p. 25.

  270. 270.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 69.

  271. 271.

    Nye, “Hard, Soft, and Smart Power,” p. 563.

  272. 272.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr. and Robert O. Keohane, “Transnational Relations and World Politics: An Introduction,” International Organization, Vol. 25, No. 3 (Summer 1971), pp. 329–349. See also Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Power and Interdependence,” Survival, Vol. 15, No. 4 (1973), pp. 158–165; Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston, Mass.: Little Brown and Company, 1977); Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Power and Interdependence Revisited,” International Organization, Vol. 41, No. 4 (Autumn 1987), pp. 725–753; Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Power and Interdependence in the Information Age,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5 (September/October 1998), pp. 81–94; and the most recent edition of Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston, Mass.: Longman, 2012).

  273. 273.

    Gu, Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen, pp. 151–163.

  274. 274.

    Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in World Political Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).

  275. 275.

    Gu, Theorien der Internationalen Beziehungen, pp. 153–154.

  276. 276.

    Andrew Moravcsik, “Taking Preferences Seriously: A Liberal Theory of International Politics,” International Organization, Vol. 51, No. 4 (Autumn 1997), p. 537.

  277. 277.

    Lee, “A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy,” pp. 206–207.

  278. 278.

    Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 219.

  279. 279.

    David Shambaugh, China Goes Global: The Partial Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 209. In the subsequent paragraph, Shambaugh focuses merely on the passive approach of soft power and the “appeal by example” in an oversimplifying understanding of soft power.

  280. 280.

    Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft: Representational Force and Attraction in World Politics,” p. 117.

  281. 281.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 28.

  282. 282.

    Andreas Anter, Theorien der Macht: Zur Einführung (Hamburg: Junius, 2012), p. 48.

  283. 283.

    However, such mistaken observations can be regarded as further evidence that the concept of soft power is still characterized by great ambiguity and deserves clarification and elaboration.

  284. 284.

    Snow, “Rethinking Public Diplomacy,” p. 3.

  285. 285.

    Andrei and Rittberger, “Macht, Interessen und Normen,” p. 25.

  286. 286.

    See below, Sect. 5.2.

  287. 287.

    Su, “Soft Power,” p. 547.

  288. 288.

    Anthony Pratkanis, “Public Diplomacy in International Conflicts: A Social Influence Analysis,” in The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, ed. Jan Melissen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 111; Pratkanis’ emphasis.

  289. 289.

    David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla, “Noopolitik: A New Paradigm for Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 361.

  290. 290.

    Nye, The Future of Power, p. 81. See also Nye, “Foreword,” p. xii; Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 162; and Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 225.

  291. 291.

    Kurt-Jürgen Maaß, “Vielfältige Umsetzungen – Ziele und Instrumente der Auswärtigen Kulturpolitik,” in Kultur und Außenpolitik: Handbuch für Wissenschaft und Praxis, ed. Kurt-Jürgen Maaß (Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2015), p. 47.

  292. 292.

    Steffen R. Kathe, Kulturpolitik um jeden Preis: Die Geschichte des Goethe-Instituts von 1951 bis 1990 (München: Martin Meidenbauer, 2005), p. 251.

  293. 293.

    Nye, The Future of Power, p. 81. See also Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 169.

  294. 294.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Harvard Professor Joseph Nye on Hard and Soft Power: ‘It Is Pointless to Talk to Al-Qaida,’” Interview conducted by Gabor Steingart and Gregor Peter Schmitz, Der Spiegel, 34/2009, August 17, 2009, online at: http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/harvard-professor-joseph-nye-on-hard-and-soft-power-it-is-pointless-to-talk-to-al-qaida-a-643189-2.html (accessed July 17, 2018).

  295. 295.

    Ronfeldt and Arquilla, “Noopolitik,” p. 361.

  296. 296.

    Christopher Walker, “The Hijacking of ‘Soft Power,’” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 27, No. 1 (January 2016), pp. 49–63.

  297. 297.

    Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 170.

  298. 298.

    International Churchill Society, “Quotes Falsely Attributed to Winston Churchill: Jaw-Jaw,” online at: https://www.winstonchurchill.org/resources/quotes/quotes-falsely-attributed (accessed September 9, 2017).

  299. 299.

    Frederick W. Kagan, “Power and Persuasion,” The Wilson Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Summer 2005), p. 57.

  300. 300.

    Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 170.

  301. 301.

    Wilson, “Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power,” p. 122.

  302. 302.

    Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft,” p. 584.

  303. 303.

    Foreign Policy Staff, “The FP Top 100 Global Thinkers,” Foreign Policy, November 28, 2011, online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/11/28/the-fp-top-100-global-thinkers-3/ (accessed February 10, 2015).

  304. 304.

    Daniel W. Drezner, “Get Smart: How to Cram for 2012,” Foreign Policy, No. 187 (July/August 2011), p. 32.

  305. 305.

    Paul C. Avey, Michael C. Desch, James D. Long, Daniel Maliniak, Susan Peterson, and Michael J. Tierney, “The FP Survey: Who Inhabits the Ivory Tower?,” Foreign Policy, No. 191 (January/February 2012), p. 92.

  306. 306.

    Foreign Policy Staff, “Does the Academy Matter?,” Foreign Policy, No. 205 (March/April 2014), p. 64.

  307. 307.

    Inboden, “What is Power?,” p. 17.

  308. 308.

    Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy,” p. 32.

  309. 309.

    Roselle, Miskimmon, and O’Loughlin, “Strategic Narrative,” p. 74.

  310. 310.

    Lock, “Soft Power and Strategy,” p. 32.

  311. 311.

    Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” pp. 163–164.

  312. 312.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 219.

  313. 313.

    Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” p. 62.

  314. 314.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 224.

  315. 315.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 234.

  316. 316.

    Quoted in Gaskarth, British Foreign Policy, p. 122. For a slightly different version of the same quote, see Gelb, Power Rules, p. 7.

  317. 317.

    Ferguson, “Think Again: Power,” p. 21.

  318. 318.

    Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York, N.Y.: Penguin Press, 2004), p. 20.

  319. 319.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. xiii.

  320. 320.

    Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 27.

  321. 321.

    Jim Garrison, America’s Empire: Global Leader or Rogue Power (San Francisco, Cal.: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2004), p. 21.

  322. 322.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Decline of America’s Soft Power: Why Washington Should Worry,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 3 (May/June 2004), p. 20.

  323. 323.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 7.

  324. 324.

    Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft,” p. 591.

  325. 325.

    Ty Solomon, “The Affective Underpinnings of Soft Power,” European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 20, No. 3 (2014), p. 723.

  326. 326.

    Todd Hall, “An Unclear Attraction: A Critical Examination of Soft Power as an Analytical Category,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2010), p. 211.

  327. 327.

    Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 164. The issue of attraction in world politics shall be picked below in detail, see Sect. 3.3.

  328. 328.

    Simona Vasilevskyte, “Discussing Soft Power Theory After Nye: The Case of Geun Lee’s Theoretical Approach,” Regional Studies, No. 7 (2013), p. 150.

  329. 329.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 53; Layne’s emphasis.

  330. 330.

    Lee, “A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy,” p. 206.

  331. 331.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. ix. See above, Sect. 2.5.1.

  332. 332.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. ix.

  333. 333.

    Nye, “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” p. 2.

  334. 334.

    Snow, “Rethinking Public Diplomacy,” p. 4.

  335. 335.

    Quoted in Hall, “An Unclear Attraction,” p. 190.

  336. 336.

    Daya Thussu, De-Americanizing Soft Power Discourse?, CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, Paper 2, 2014 (Los Angeles, Cal.: Figueroa Press, 2014), pp. 17–21.

  337. 337.

    Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” p. 62.

  338. 338.

    Ronfeldt and Arquilla, “Noopolitik,” pp. 359–361.

  339. 339.

    Baumann and Cramer, “Power, Soft or Deep?,” p. 199.

  340. 340.

    Nicholas J. Cull, Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the Past, CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy (Los Angeles, Cal.: Figueroa Press, 2011), p. 15.

  341. 341.

    Thussu, De-Americanizing Soft Power Discourse?, p. 5.

  342. 342.

    Benjamin E. Goldsmith and Yusaku Horiuchi, “In Search of Soft Power: Does Foreign Public Opinion Matter for US Foreign Policy?,” World Politics, Vol. 64, No. 3 (July 2012), p. 558.

  343. 343.

    Nye, “Foreword,” p. ix.

  344. 344.

    Peter Brooks, “Iran: Our Military Options,” The Heritage Foundation, January 23, 2006, online at: at: http://www.heritage.org/research/commentary/2006/01/iran-our-military-options (accessed February 13, 2015); Robert Kagan, “Power and Weakness,” Policy Review, No. 113 (June/July 2002), p. 13.

  345. 345.

    Gelb, Power Rules, p. 69.

  346. 346.

    Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Think Again: Soft Power,” Foreign Policy, February 23, 2006, online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2006/02/23/think-again-soft-power/ (accessed February 13, 2015); Nye, “Notes for a Soft-Power Research Agenda,” p. 162; Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 14.

  347. 347.

    Nye, “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” p. 3.

  348. 348.

    Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 219.

  349. 349.

    Quoted in Nye, “Soft Power: The Origins and Political Progress of a Concept,” p. 3.

  350. 350.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 14.

  351. 351.

    Hall, “An Unclear Attraction,” p. 195.

  352. 352.

    Lee, “A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy,” p. 207.

  353. 353.

    Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 16.

  354. 354.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” pp. 53–54.

  355. 355.

    Till Geiger, “The Power Game, Soft Power and the International Historian,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 86.

  356. 356.

    Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 71. This line of criticism is frequently shared and has in particular led to the introduction of the soft power subunits by the work in hand.

  357. 357.

    Rajen Harshe, “Culture, Identity and International Relations,” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 41, No. 37 (September 16-22, 2006), p. 3948.

  358. 358.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 6; Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 17.

  359. 359.

    Nye, Soft Power, p. 99.

  360. 360.

    Abraham Kaplan, The Conduct of Inquiry: Methodology for Behavioral Sciences (San Francisco, Cal.: Chandler Publishing Company, 1964), p. 11 & pp. 16–17.

  361. 361.

    Fred I. Greenstein, “The Impact of Personality on the End of the Cold War: A Counterfactual Analysis,” Political Psychology, Vol. 19, No. 1 (March 1998), p. 14. For a similar comparison, see Dietrich Rueschemeyer, “Can One or a Few Cases Yield Theoretical Gains?,” in Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, eds. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 327.

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  1. Center for Global Studies, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

    Hendrik W. Ohnesorge

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Ohnesorge, H.W. (2020). Power in International Relations: Understandings and Varieties. In: Soft Power. Global Power Shift. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4_2

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