Abstract
Emulsions are dispersions of one liquid into the second immiscible liquid in the form of fine droplets. Emulsions can be classified as either oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsions depending on whether oil or water is the dispersed phase. Milk, cream and sauces are some examples of oil-in-water emulsions whereas butter and margarine are examples of water-in-oil emulsions. This chapter discusses the physical principles that are involved in the formation and stability of food emulsions. Prediction of droplet size distribution for food emulsions that are formed in colloid mill (predominantly by shear) and high pressure homogenizer (predominantly by turbulence) in terms of operating conditions in these equipments is discussed. The fluid mechanics of droplet breakage and coalescence in shear and turbulence are discussed and applied to the formation of food emulsions and to the prediction of drop size. The role of proteins and surfactants on the stability of emulsions is discussed. The effect of interfacial dilatational and shear elasticity on thin film stability and drop coalescence is described. Some recent results of a new technique, layer by layer deposition, to improve the shelf life of emulsions by using alternate layers of proteins and polysaccharides is presented. Thermodynamics and phase behavior of microemulsions and its application to food is discussed.
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
The droplet size needs to be as small as possible in order to reduce the rate of creaming as well as Brownian collisions so as to minimize coarsening due to coalescence.
References
Andersen JAC, Williams PN (1965) Margarine. Pergamon Press, London
Aoki T, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2005) Influence of environmental stresses on stability of O/W emulsions containing droplets stabilized by multilayered membranes produced by a layer-by-layer electrostatic deposition technique. Food Hydrocolloids 19(2):209–220
Atkinson PJ, Dickinson E, Horne DS, Richardson RM (1995) Neutron reflectivity of adsorbed β-casein and β-lactoglobulin at the air/water interface. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 91(17):2847–2854
Barthes-Biesel D, Acrivos A (1973) Deformation and burst of a liquid droplet freely suspended in a linear shear field. J Fluid Mech 61:1–21
Bartok W, Mason SG (1957) J Colloid Interface Sci 12:243
Becher P (1985) Encyclopedia of emulsion technology, vol 2. Marcel Dekker, New York
Becher P (2001) Emulsion applications. In: Emulsions: theory and practice. Oxford University Press, Washington, DC, pp 429–459
Bergenstahl G (1997) Physicochemical aspects of emulsifier functionality. Food emulsifier and their applications. Chapman & Hall, New York
Borwanker RP, Buliga GS (1990) Food emulsion and foams: theory and practice. In: AIChE symposium series
Bos MA, van Vliet T (2001) Interfacial rheological properties of adsorbed protein layers and surfactants: a review. Adv Colloid Interf Sci 91(3):437–471
Brennen JG, Butters JR et al (1990) Food engineering operations. Elsevier Applied Science, New York
Calabrese RV, Chang TPK, Dang PT (1986) Drop breakup in turbulent stirred tank contactors—part I: effect of dispersed phase viscosity. AIChE J 32(4):657–666
Caruso F, Möhwald H (1999a) Preparation and characterization of ordered nanoparticle and polymer composite multilayers on colloids. Langmuir 15(23):8276–8281
Caruso F, Möhwald H (1999b) Protein multilayer formation on colloids through a stepwise self-assembly technique. J Am Chem Soc 121(25):6039–6046
Caruso F, Caruso RA, Möhwald H (1998a) Nanoengineering of inorganic and hybrid hollow spheres by colloidal templating. Science 282(5391):1111–1114
Caruso F, Furlong DN, Ariga K, Ichinose I, Kunitake T (1998b) Characterization of polyelectrolyte-protein multilayer films by atomic force microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared reflection-absorption spectroscopy. Langmuir 14(16):4559–4565
Caruso F, Lichtenfeld H, Donath E, Möhwald H (1999) Investigation of electrostatic interactions in polyelectrolyte multilayer films: binding of anionic fluorescent probes to layers assembled onto colloids. Macromolecules 32(7):2317–2328
Caruso F, Fiedler H, Haage K (2000) Assembly of β-glucosidase multilayers on spherical colloidal particles and their use as active catalysts. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 169(1):287–293
Chilton H, Laws D (1980) Stability of aqueous emulsions of the essential oil of hops. J Inst Brew 86(3):126–130
Cornec ME (1999) Adsorption dynamics of α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin at air–water interfaces. J Colloid Interface Sci 214(2):129–142
Coulaloglou CA, Tavlarides LL (1977) Description of interaction processes in agitated liquid-liquid dispersions. Chem Eng Sci 32:1289
Cox RG (1969) The deformation of a drop in a general time-dependent flow. J Fluid Mech 37:601–623
Darling DF, Birkett RJ (1987) Food colloids in practice. In: Dickinson E (ed) Food Emulsions and Foams. Royal Society of Chemistry, London, UK, pp 1–29
Das PK, Kumar R, Ramkrishna D (1987) Coalescence of drops in stirred dispersion. A white noise model for coalescence. Chem Eng Sci 42(2):213–220
Davies JT (1957) Gas/liquid and liquid/liquid interface. In: Proceedings of international congress on surface activity. Butterworth, London
Davis H (1994) Factors determining emulsion type: hydrophile—lipophile balance and beyond. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 91:9–24
De Feijter J, Benjamins J (1982) Soft-particle model of compact macromolecules at interfaces. J Colloid Interface Sci 90(1):289–292
Decher G (1997) Fuzzy nanoassemblies: toward layered polymeric multicomposites. Science 277(5330):1232–1237
Decher G, Hong J (1991a) Buildup of ultrathin multilayer films by a self-assembly process: II. Consecutive adsorption of anionic and cationic bipolar amphiphiles and polyelectrolytes on charged surfaces. Ber Bunsenges Phys Chem 95(11):1430–1434
Decher G, Hong JD (1991b) Buildup of ultrathin multilayer films by a self-assembly process, I. Consecutive adsorption of anionic and cationic bipolar amphiphiles on charged surfaces. In: Paper presented at the makromolekulare chemie, macromolecular symposia
Decher G, Hong J, Schmitt J (1992) Buildup of ultrathin multilayer films by a self-assembly process: III. Consecutively alternating adsorption of anionic and cationic polyelectrolytes on charged surfaces. Thin Solid Films 210:831–835
Dickinson E (1992) An introduction to food colloids. Oxford University Press, New York
Dickinson E (2001) Milk protein interfacial layers and the relationship to emulsion stability and rheology. Colloids Surf B: Biointerfaces 20(3):197–210
Dickinson E, Hong S-T (1995) Influence of water-soluble nonionic emulsifier on the rheology of heat-set protein-stabilized emulsion gels. J Agric Food Chem 43(10):2560–2566
Dickinson E, Matsumura Y (1994) Proteins at liquid interfaces: role of the molten globule state. Colloids Surf B: Biointerfaces 3(1):1–17
Dickinson E, Stainsby G (1988) Advances in food emulsions and foams. Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd., London
Djabbarah N, Wasan D (1982) Dilational viscoelastic properties of fluid interfaces—III. Mixed surfactant systems. Chem Eng Sci 37(2):175–184
Douillard R, Lefebvre J (1990) Adsorption of proteins at the gas—liquid interface: models for concentration and pressure isotherms. J Colloid Interface Sci 139(2):488–499
Estrela-Lopis I, Leporatti S, Moya S, Brandt A, Donath E, Möhwald H (2002) SANS studies of polyelectrolyte multilayers on colloidal templates. Langmuir 18(21):7861–7866
Evans DF, Mitchell DJ, Ninham BW (1986) Oil, water, and surfactant—properties and conjectured structure of simple microemulsions. J Phys Chem 90(13):2817–2825. https://doi.org/10.1021/j100404a009
Fisher L, Parker N, Dickinson E, Stainsby G (1988) Advances in food emulsions and foams. Elsevier Applied Science, London, p 45
Flanagan J, Singh H (2006) Microemulsions: a potential delivery system for bioactives in food. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 46(3):221–237
Flanagan J, Kortegaard K, Pinder DN, Rades T, Singh H (2006) Solubilisation of soybean oil in microemulsions using various surfactants. Food Hydrocolloids 20(2):253–260
Frisch HL, Simha R (1956) Monolayers of linear macromolecules. J. Chem. Phys. 24(4):652–655
Gerbacia W, Rosano HL (1973) Microemulsions—formation and stabilization. J Colloid Interface Sci 44(2):242–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(73)90216-6
Gopal ESR (1968) Principles of emulsion formation. In: Sherman P (ed) Emulsion science. Academic, London
Griffin WC (1946) Classification of surface-active agents by “HLB”. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1:311–326
Gu YS, Regnier L, McClements DJ (2005) Influence of environmental stresses on stability of oil-in-water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by β-lactoglobulin–ι-carrageenan membranes. J Colloid Interface Sci 286(2):551–558
Guzey D, McClements DJ (2006) Formation, stability and properties of multilayer emulsions for application in the food industry. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 128:227–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2006.11.021
Güzey D, McClements DJ (2006) Influence of environmental stresses on O/W emulsions stabilized by β-lactoglobulin–pectin and β-lactoglobulin–pectin–chitosan membranes produced by the electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition technique. Food Biophys 1(1):30–40
Guzey D, Kim H, McClements DJ (2004) Factors influencing the production of o/w emulsions stabilized by β-lactoglobulin–pectin membranes. Food Hydrocolloids 18(6):967–975
Hiemenz P, Rajagopalan R (1997) The electrical double layer and double-layer interactions. In: Principles of colloid and surface chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp 499–533
Hinze JO (1955) Fundamentals of the hydrodynamic mechanism of splitting in dispersion processes. AIChE J 1(3):289–295
Humblet-Hua K, Scheltens G, Van Der Linden E, Sagis L (2011) Encapsulation systems based on ovalbumin fibrils and high methoxyl pectin. Food Hydrocolloids 25(4):569–576
Humblet-Hua N-PK, van der Linden E, Sagis LM (2012) Microcapsules with protein fibril reinforced shells: effect of fibril properties on mechanical strength of the shell. J Agric Food Chem 60(37):9502–9511
Ibarz G, Dähne L, Donath E, Möhwald H (2002) Controlled permeability of polyelectrolyte capsules via defined annealing. Chem Mater 14(10):4059–4062
Israelachvili JN, Mitchell DJ, Ninham BW (1976) Theory of self-assembly of hydrocarbon amphiphiles into micelles and bilayers. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans II 72:1525–1568. https://doi.org/10.1039/f29767201525
Jakobsson M, Sivik B (1994) Oxidative stability of fish oil included in a microemulsion. J Dispers Sci Technol 15(5):611–619
Kahlweit M, Strey R (1985) Phase-behavior of ternary-systems of the type H2O-oil-nonionic amphiphile (microemulsions). Angew Chem Int Ed 24(8):654–668. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.198506541
Kandori K (1995) Applications of microporous glass membranes: membrane emulsification. In: Gaonkar AG (ed) Food processing: recent developments. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 113–142
Karam HJ, Bellinger JC (1968) Deformation and breakup of liquid droplets in a simple shear field. Ind Eng Chem Res 7(4):576–581
Kato N, Schuetz P, Fery A, Caruso F (2002) Thin multilayer films of weak polyelectrolytes on colloid particles. Macromolecules 35(26):9780–9787
Klinkesorn U, Sophanodora P, Chinachoti P, McClements DJ, Decker EA (2005a) Increasing the oxidative stability of liquid and dried tuna oil-in-water emulsions with electrostatic layer-by-layer deposition technology. J Agric Food Chem 53(11):4561–4566
Klinkesorn U, Sophanodora P, Chinachoti P, McClements DJ, Decker EA (2005b) Stability of spray-dried tuna oil emulsions encapsulated with two-layered interfacial membranes. J Agric Food Chem 53(21):8365–8371
Kokelaar J, Prins A (1995) Surface rheological properties of bread dough components in relation to gas bubble stability. J Cereal Sci 22(1):53–61
Kralova I, Sjöblom J (2009) Surfactants used in food industry: a review. J Dispers Sci Technol 30(9):1363–1383
Lee S-H, Lefèvre T, Subirade M, Paquin P (2009) Effects of ultra-high pressure homogenization on the properties and structure of interfacial protein layer in whey protein-stabilized emulsion. Food Chem 113(1):191–195
Levich VG (1962) Physicochemical hydrodynamics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
Lobo L, Sverika A (1997) A unique method to measure coalescence occurring during homogenization. In: Paper presented at the proceedings of second world conference on emulsions
McCarthy WW (1964) Ultrasonic emulsification. Drug Cosmet Ind 94(6):821–824
McClements DJ (1999) Food emulsions: principles, practice and techniques. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
McClements DJ (2005) Theoretical analysis of factors affecting the formation and stability of multilayered colloidal dispersions. Langmuir 21(21):9777–9785
Mermut O, Lefebvre J, Gray DG, Barrett CJ (2003) Structural and mechanical properties of polyelectrolyte multilayer films studied by AFM. Macromolecules 36(23):8819–8824
Mohan S, Narsimhan G (1997) Coalescence of protein-stabilized emulsions in a high pressure homogenizer. J Colloid Interface Sci. 192:1–15
Moreau L, Kim H-J, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2003) Production and characterization of oil-in-water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by β-lactoglobulin-pectin membranes. J Agric Food Chem 51(22):6612–6617
Muralidhar R, Ramkrishna D (1986) Analysis of droplet coalescence in turbulent liquid-liquid dispersions. I&EC Fundam 25:554–560
Muralidhar R, Ramkrishna D, Das PK, Kumar R (1988) Coalescence of rigid droplets in a stirred dispersion- II. Band-limited force fluctuations. Chem Eng Sci 43:1559–1568
Murray BS, Dickinson E (1996) Interfacial rheology and the dynamic properties of adsorbed films of food proteins and surfactants. Food Sci Technol Int Tokyo 2(3):131–145
Narsimhan G (2004) Model for drop coalescence in a locally isotropic turbulent flow field. J Colloid Interface Sci 272:197–209
Narsimhan G, Goel P (2001) Drop coalescence during emulsion formation in a high pressure homogenizer for tetradecane-in-water emulsion stabilized by sodium dodecyl sulphate. J Colloid Interface Sci 238:420–432
Narsimhan G, Wang Z (2005) Stability of thin stagnant film on a solid surface with a viscoelastic air–liquid interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 291(1):296–302
Narsimhan G, Gupta JP, Ramkrishna D (1979) A model for transitional breakage probability of droplets in agitated lean liquid-liquid dispersions. Chem Eng Sci 34:257
Narsimhan G, Ramkrishna D, Gupta JP (1980) Analysis of drop size distributions in lean liquid-liquid dispersions. AIChE J 26:991
Narsimhan G, Neijfelt G, Ramkrishna D (1984) Breakage functions of droplets in agitated liquid-liquid dispersions. AIChE J 30:457
Oakenfull D (1980) Constraints of molecular packing on the size and stability of microemulsion droplets. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 1: Phys Chem Condens Phases 76:1875–1886
Ogawa S, Decker EA, McClements DJ (2003) Influence of environmental conditions on the stability of oil in water emulsions containing droplets stabilized by lecithin-chitosan membranes. J Agric Food Chem 51(18):5522–5527
Okubo T, Suda M (2003) Multilayered adsorption of macrocations and macroanions on colloidal spheres as studied by dynamic light scattering measurements. Colloid Polym Sci 281(8):782–787
Ortega-Rivas E, Juliano P, Yan H (2006) Food powders: physical properties, processing, and functionality. Springer, New York
Overbeek JTG (1982) Monodisperse colloidal systems, fascinating and useful. Adv Colloid Interf Sci 15(3–4):251–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8686(82)80003-1
Pandolfe WD (1995) Effect of premix condition, surfactant concentration, and oil level on the formation of oil-in-water emulsions by homogenization. J Dispers Sci Technol 16(7):633–650
Park M-K, Xia C, Advincula RC, Schütz P, Caruso F (2001) Cross-linked, luminescent spherical colloidal and hollow-shell particles. Langmuir 17(24):7670–7674
Paul BK, Moulik SP (2001) Uses and applications of microemulsions. Curr Sci Bangalore 80(8):990–1001
Peyratout CS, Dähne L (2004) Tailor-made polyelectrolyte microcapsules: from multilayers to smart containers. Angew Chem Int Ed 43(29):3762–3783
Phipps LW (1985) The high pressure dairy homogenizer. The National Institute for Research in Dairy, Reading
Rao J, McClements DJ (2011) Food-grade microemulsions, nanoemulsions and emulsions: fabrication from sucrose monopalmitate & lemon oil. Food Hydrocolloids 25(6):1413–1423
Reihs T, Müller M, Lunkwitz K (2003) Deposition of polylelectrolyte complex nano-particles at silica surfaces characterized by ATR-FTIR and SEM. Colloids Surf A: Physicochem Eng Asp 212(1):79–95
Rossier-Miranda FJ, Schroën K, Boom R (2012) Microcapsule production by an hybrid colloidosome-layer-by-layer technique. Food Hydrocolloids 27(1):119–125
Ruckenstein E, Chi JC (1975) Stability of microemulsions. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans II 71:1690–1707. https://doi.org/10.1039/f29757101690
Ruckenstein E, Krishnan R (1980a) Effect of electrolytes and mixtures of surfactants on the oil-water interfacial-tension and their role in formation of micro-emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 76(1):201–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9797(80)90286-6
Ruckenstein E, Krishnan R (1980b) The Equilibrium radius and domain of existence of microemulsion. J Colloid Interface Sci 76:201–211
Rumscheidt FD, Mason SG (1961a) Particle motions in sheared suspensions XII. Deformation and burst of fluid drops in shear and hyperbolic flow. J Colloid Interface Sci 16:238–261
Rumscheidt FD, Mason SG (1961b) J Colloid Interface Sci 16:210
Sagis LM, de Ruiter R, Miranda FJR, de Ruiter J, Schroën K, van Aelst AC et al (2008) Polymer microcapsules with a fiber-reinforced nanocomposite shell. Langmuir 24(5):1608–1612
Salager J-L, Antón RE, Sabatini DA, Harwell JH, Acosta EJ, Tolosa LI (2005) Enhancing solubilization in microemulsions—state of the art and current trends. J Surfactant Deterg 8(1):3–21
Sathyagal AN, Ramkrishna D, Narsimhan G (1996) Droplet breakage in stirred dispersions. Breakage functions from experimental drop size distributions. Chem Eng Sci 51(9):1377–1391
Schönhoff M (2003) Layered polyelectrolyte complexes: physics of formation and molecular properties. J Phys Condens Matter 15(49):R1781
Shahidi F, Han XQ (1993) Encapsulation of food ingredients. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 33(6):501–547
Singer SJ (1948) Note on an equation of state for linear macromolecules in monolayers. J. Chem. Phys. 16(9):872–876
Spernath A, Yaghmur A, Aserin A, Hoffman RE, Garti N (2002) Food-grade microemulsions based on nonionic emulsifiers: media to enhance lycopene solubilization. J Agric Food Chem 50(23):6917–6922
Sukhorukov GB, Donath E, Lichtenfeld H, Knippel E, Knippel M, Budde A, Möhwald H (1998) Layer-by-layer self assembly of polyelectrolytes on colloidal particles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 137(1):253–266
Surh J, Gu YS, Decker EA, Mcclements DJ (2005) Influence of environmental stresses on stability of O/W emulsions containing cationic droplets stabilized by SDS-fish gelatin membranes. J Agric Food Chem 53(10):4236–4244
Swaisgood HE (1996) food emulsifier and their applications. In: Fennema OR (ed) Food chemistry. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp 841–878
Taylor GI (1932) Proc R Soc Lond A138:41
Taylor GI (1934) Proc R Soc Lond A146:501
Torza S, Cox RG, Mason SG (1972) Particle motions in sheared suspensions. XXVII. Transient and steady deformation and burst of liquid drops. J Colloid Interface Sci 38(2):395–411
Tsaine L, Walstra P, Cabane B (1996) Transfer of oil between emulsion droplets. J Colloid Interface Sci 184:378–390
Uraizee F, Narsimhan G (1991) A surface equation of state for globular proteins at the air-water interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 146(1):169–178
Voigt A, Lichtenfeld H, Sukhorukov GB, Zastrow H, Donath E, Bäumler H, Möhwald H (1999) Membrane filtration for microencapsulation and microcapsules fabrication by layer-by-layer polyelectrolyte adsorption. Ind Eng Chem Res 38(10):4037–4043
Walstra P (1983) Formation of emulsions. In: Becher P (ed) Encyclopedia of emulsion technology, vol 1. Marcel Dekker, New York
Walstra P (1993) Principles of emulsion formation. Chem Eng Sci 48(2):333–349
Walstra P, Smulders PE (1998), Emulsion formation, in “Modern aspects of emulsion science”, Binks, B.P. (ed), Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, pp 56–101
Winsor PA (1948) Hydrotropy, solubilisation and related emulsification processes. 1–4. Trans Faraday Soc 44(6):376–398. https://doi.org/10.1039/tf9484400376
Xiang N, Lyu Y, Narsimhan G (2016) Characterization of fish oil in water emulsion produced by layer by layer deposition of soy β-conglycinin and high methoxyl pectin. Food Hydrocolloids 52:678–689
Yang W, Trau D, Renneberg R, Yu NT, Caruso F (2001) Layer-by-layer construction of novel biofunctional fluorescent microparticles for immunoassay applications. J Colloid Interface Sci 234(2):356–362
Zhong F, Yu M, Luo C, Shoemaker CF, Li Y, Xia S, Ma J (2009) Formation and characterisation of mint oil/S and CS/water microemulsions. Food Chem 115(2):539–544
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Narsimhan, G., Wang, Z., Xiang, N. (2019). Guidelines for Processing Emulsion-Based Foods. In: Hasenhuettl, G., Hartel, R. (eds) Food Emulsifiers and Their Applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29187-7_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29187-7_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-29185-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-29187-7
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)