Abstract
This chapter reviews current evidence of infant development and pelvic morphology from the hominin fossil record over our evolutionary history and considers the implications for understanding obstetrical dilemmas from ecological and evolutionary perspectives, and for infant care and survivorship over time and across species. We begin by defining infants and addressing the challenges of doing so within a palaeospecies. We also consider the limitations to our study of hominin infants due to taphonomic factors. We present an overview of the fossil record of hominin pelves and evolutionary changes relating to bipedalism and obstetrics. We then trace the fossil record of hominin infants and the evidence for the evolution of infant developmental trajectories. Finally, we draw these lines of evidence together to consider the current state of our understanding about the evolution of childbirth, mother–infant survivorship and infant care over time and if the obstetrical dilemma hypothesis is no longer supported.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Sexing of the infant is based on fully formed permanent tooth crowns in its mandible relative to known sexual dimorphism in Au. afarensis dentition.
References
Alemsaged, Z., Spoor, F., Kimbel, W. H., Bobe, R., Geraads, D., Reed, D., & Wynn, J. G. (2006). A juvenile early hominin skeleton from Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature, 433, 296–301.
Arsuaga, J. L., Carretero, J. M., Lorenzo, C., Gómez-Olivencia, A., Pablos, A., Rodríguez, L., García-González, R., Bonmatí, A., Quam, R. M., Pantoja-Pérez, A., Martínez, I., Aranburu, A., Gracia-Téllez, A., Poza-Rey, E., Sala, N., García, N., Alcázar de Velasco, A., Cuenca-Bescós, G., Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., & Carbonell, E. (2015). Postcranial morphology of the Middle Pleistocene humans from Sima de los Huesos, Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(37), 11524–11529.
Austin, C., Smith, T. M., Bradman, A., Hinde, K., Joannes-Boyau, R., Bishop, D., Hare, D. J., Doble, P., Eskenazi, B., & Arora, M. (2013). Barium distributions in teeth reveal early-life dietary transitions in primates. Nature, 498, 216–219.
Baker, B. J., Dupras, T. L., & Tocheri, M. W. (2005). The osteology of infants and children. College Station: Texas A&M Press.
Barrickman, N., Bastian, M. L., Isler, K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2008). Life history costs and benefits of encephalization: A comparative test using data from long-term studies of primates in the wild. Journal of Human Evolution, 54(5), 568–590.
Berge, C., & Goularas, D. (2010). A new reconstruction of Sts 14 pelvis (Australopithecus africanus) from computed tomography and three-dimensional modeling techniques. Journal of Human Evolution, 58(3), 262–272.
Berger, L. R., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K. J., Dirks, P. H., & Kibii, J. M. (2010). Australopithecus sediba: A new species of Homo-like australopith from South Africa. Science, 328(5975), 195–204.
Berger, L. R., Hawks, J., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Delezene, L. K., Kivell, T. L., Garvin, H. M., Williams, S. A., DeSilva, J. M., Skinner, M. M., Musiba, C. M., Cameron, N., Holliday, T. W., Harcourt-Smith, W., Ackermann, R. R., Bastir, M., Bogin, B., Bolter, D., Brophy, J., Cofran, Z. D., Congdon, K. A., Deane, A. S., Dembo, M., Drapeau, M., Elliott, M. C., Feuerriegel, E. M., Garcia-Martinez, D., Green, D. J., Gurtov, A., Irish, J. D., Kruger, A., Laird, M. F., Marchi, D., Meyer, M. R., Nalla, S., Negash, E. W., Orr, C. M., Radovcic, D., Schroeder, L., Scott, J. E., Throckmorton, Z., Tocheri, M. W., VanSickle, C., Walker, C. S., Wei, P., & Zipfel, B. (2015). Homo naledi, a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa. eLife, 2015(4), e09560. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.09560.
Bermúdez de Castro, J. M., & Pérez, P. J. (1995). Enamel hypoplasia in the Middle Pleistocene hominids from Atapuerca (Spain). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 96(3), 310–314.
Bocherens, H., Billiou, D., Mariotti, A., Toussaint, M., Patou-Mathis, M., Bonjean Asbl, D., & Otte, M. (2001). New isotopic evidence for dietary habits of Neanderthals from Belgium. Journal of Human Evolution, 40, 497–505.
Bogin, B. (2003). The human pattern of growth and development in paleontological perspective. In J. L. Thompson, G. E. Krovitz, & A. J. Nelson (Eds.), Patterns of growth and development in the genus Homo (pp. 15–44). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Bogin, B. (2009). Childhood, adolescence, and longevity: A multilevel model of the evolution of reserve capacity in human life history. American Journal of Human Biology, 21(4), 567–577.
Bonmatí, A., Gómez-Olivencia, A., Arsuaga, J. L., Carretero, J. M., Gracia, A., Martínez, I., Lorenzo, C., Bérmudez de Castro, J. M., & Carbonell, E. (2010). Middle Pleistocene lower back and pelvis from an aged human individual from the Sima de los Huesos site, Spain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(43), 18386–18391.
Booth, T. J. (2016). An investigation into the relationship between bacterial bioerosion and funerary treatment in European archaeological human bone. Archaeometry, 58(3), 484–499.
Booth, T. J., Redfern, R. C., & Gowland, R. L. (2016). Immaculate conceptions: Micro-CT analysis of diagenesis of Romano-British infant skeletons. Journal of Archaeological Science, 74, 124–134.
Brown, P., Sutikna, T., Morwood, M. J., Soejono, R. P., Jatmiko, S. E. W., & Due, R. A. (2004). A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia. Nature, 431, 1055–1061.
Carter, C. S., & Porges, S. W. (2013). The biochemistry of love: An oxytocin hypothesis. EMBO Reports, 14(1), 12–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/embor.2012.191.
Churchill, S. E., & Vansickle, C. (2017). Pelvic morphology in Homo erectus and early Homo. The Anatomical Record, 300, 964–977. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.23576.
Claxton, A. G., Hammond, A. S., Romano, J., Oleinik, E., & DeSilva, J. M. (2016). Virtual reconstruction of the Australopithecus africanus pelvis Sts 65 with implications for obstetrics and locomotion. Journal of Human Evolution, 99, 10–24.
Cofran, Z., & DeSilva, J. M. (2015). A neonatal perspective on Homo erectus brain growth. Journal of Human Evolution, 81, 41–47.
Coqueugniot, H., & Hublin, J.-J. (2007). Endocranial volume and brain growth in immature Neanderthals. Periodicum Biologorum, 109(4), 379–385.
Coqueugniot, H., & Hublin, J.-J. (2012). Age-related changes of digital endocranial volume during human ontogeny: Results from an osteological reference collection. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 147(2), 312–318.
Coqueugniot, H., Hublin, J. J., Veillon, F., Houët, F., & Jacob, T. (2004). Early brain growth in Homo erectus and implications for cognitive ability. Nature, 431, 299–302.
Cunnane, S. C., & Crawford, M. A. (2003). Survival of the fattest: Fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular and Integrative Physiology, 136(1), 17–26.
Cunnane, S. C., & Crawford, M. A. (2014). Energetic and nutritional constraints on infant brain development: Implications for brain expansion during human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 77, 88–98.
Dávid-Barrett, T., & Dunbar, R. I. M. (2016). Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling. Journal of Human Evolution, 94, 72–82.
Dean, M. C., & Smith, B. H. (2009). Growth and development in the Nariokotome Youth, KNM-WT 15000. In F. E. Grine, J. G. Fleagle, & R. E. Leakey (Eds.), The first humans: Origin of the genus Homo (pp. 101–120). New York: Springer.
DeSilva, J. M. (2011). A shift toward birthing relatively large infants early in human evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(3), 1022–1027.
DeSilva, J. M., Laudicina, N. M., Rosenberg, K. R., & Trevathan, W. R. (2017). Neonatal shoulder width suggests a semirotational, oblique birth mechanism in Australopithecus afarensis. The Anatomical Record, 300(5), 890–899.
DeSilva, J. M., Gill, C. M., Prang, T. C., Bredella, M. A., & Alemseged, Z. (2018). A nearly complete foot from Dikika, Ethiopia and its implications for the ontogeny and function of Australopithecus afarensis. Science Advances, 4(7), eaar7723. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar7723.
Dirks, P. H. G. M., Roberts, E. M., Hilbert-Wolf, H., Kramers, J. D., Hawks, J., Dosseto, A., Duval, M., Elliott, M., Evans, M., Grün, R., Hellstrom, J., Herries, A. I. R., Joannes-Boyau, R., Makhubela, T. V., Placzek, C. J., Robbins, J., Spandler, C., Wiersma, J., Woodhead, J., & Berger, L. R. (2017). The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa. eLife, 2017(6), e24231. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.24231.
Driscoll, C. (2009). Grandmothers, hunters and human life history. Biology and Philosophy, 24(5), 665–686.
Dunsworth, H., & Eccleston, L. (2015). The evolution of difficult childbirth and helpless hominin infants. Annual Review of Anthropology, 44, 55–69.
Dunsworth, H. M., Warrener, A. G., Deacon, T., Ellison, P. T., & Pontzer, H. (2012). Metabolic hypotheses for human altriciality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(38), 15212–15216.
Einwögerer, T., Friesinger, H., Händel, M., Neugebauer-Maresch, C., Simon, U., & Teschler-Nicola, M. (2006). Upper Paleolithic infant burials. Nature, 444(16), 285.
Ellison, P. (2001). On fertile ground: A natural history of human reproduction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Finlay, N. (2000). Outside of life: Traditions of infant burial in Ireland from cillin to cist. World Archaeology, 31(3), 407–422.
Garwicz, M., Christensson, M., & Psouni, E. (2009). A unifying model for timing of walking onset in humans and other mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(51), 21889–21893.
Guy, H., Masset, C., & Baud, C.-A. (1997). Infant taphonomy. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 7(3), 224–229.
Halcrow, S., & Tayles, N. (2008). The bioarchaeological investigation of childhood and social age: Problems and prospects. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 15(2), 190–215.
Hausler, M., & Schmid, P. (1995). Comparison of the pelves of Sts 14 and AL288-1: Implications for birth and sexual dimorphism in australopithecines. Journal of Human Evolution, 29(4), 363–383.
Hawkes, K. (2003). Grandmothers and the evolution of human longevity. American Journal of Human Biology, 15(3), 380–400.
Herries, A. I., Hopley, P. J., Adams, J. W., Curnoe, D., & Maslin, M. A. (2010). Letter to the editor: Geochronology and palaeoenvironments of southern African hominin-bearing localities – A reply to Wrangham et al., 2009. “Shallow-water habitats as sources of fallback foods for hominins”. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 143(4), 640–646.
Hrdy, S. B. (2009). Mothers and others: The evolutionary origins of mutual understanding. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press.
Humphrey, L. T. (2010). Weaning behaviour in human evolution. Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology, 21(4), 453–461.
Humphrey, L. T., Dean, M. C., Jeffries, T. E., & Penn, M. (2008). Unlocking evidence of early diet from tooth enamel. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(19), 6834–6839.
Isler, K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2012). Allomaternal care, life history and brain size evolution in mammals. Journal of Human Evolution, 63(1), 52–63.
Isler, K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2014). How humans evolved large brains: Comparative evidence. Evolutionary Anthropology, 23(2), 65–75.
Johanson, D. C., Lovejoy, C. O., Kimbel, W. H., White, T. D., Ward, S. C., Bush, M. E., Latimer, B. M., & Coppens, Y. (1982). Morphology of the Pliocene partial hominid skeleton (AL 288-1) from the Hadar Formation, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 57(4), 403–452.
Kibii, J. M., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K. J., Reed, N. D., de Ruiter, D. J., & Berger, L. R. (2011). A partial pelvis of Australopithecus sediba. Science, 333(6048), 1407–1411.
Kramer, K. L., & Otárola-Castillo, E. (2015). When mothers need others: The impact of hominin life history evolution on cooperative breeding. Journal of Human Evolution, 84, 16–24.
Kurki, H. K. (2013). Skeletal variability in the pelvis and limb skeleton of humans: Does stabilizing selection limit female pelvic variation? American Journal of Human Biology, 25(6), 795–802.
Kurki, H. K., & Decrausaz, S. L. (2016). Shape variation in the human pelvis and limb skeleton: Implications for obstetric adaptation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 159(4), 630–638.
LaCruz, R., Ramirez Rozzi, F., & Bromage, T. (2005). Dental enamel hypoplasia, age at death, and weaning in the Taung child. South African Journal of Science, 101(11–12), 567–569.
Lillehammer, G. (2011). Children in the bog. In M. Lally & A. Moore (Eds.), (Re)Thinking the little ancestor: New perspectives on the archaeology of infancy and childhood (BAR International Series 2221) (pp. 47–62). Oxford, UK: Archaeopress.
Liu, X., Somel, M., Tang, L., Yan, Z., Jiang, X., Guo, S., Yuan, Y., He, L., Oleksiak, A., Zhang, Y., Li, N., Hu, Y., Chen, W., Qiu, Z., Pääbo, S., & Khaitovich, P. (2012). Extension of cortical synaptic development distinguishes humans from chimpanzees and macaques. Genome Research, 22(4), 611–622.
Lovejoy, C. O., Suwa, G., Spurlock, L., Asfaw, B., & White, T. D. (2009). The pelvis and femur of Ardipithecus ramidus: The emergence of upright walking. Science, 326(5949), 71e1–71e6.
Mace, R. (2000). Evolutionary ecology of human life history. Animal Behaviour, 59(1), 1–10.
Neubauer, S., & Hublin, J.-J. (2012). The evolution of human brain development. Evolutionary Biology, 39(4), 568–586.
Nowell, A. (2010). Working memory and the speed of life. Current Anthropology, 51(S1), S121–S133.
Nowell, A. (2016). Childhood, play and the evolution of cultural capacity in Neanderthals. In M. Haidle, N. Conard, & M. Bolus (Eds.), The nature of culture. Vertebrate paleobiology and paleoanthropology (pp. 87–97). Dordrecht: Springer.
Nowell, A. (n.d.). Reconsidering the personhood of infants in the Gravettian. Journal of Anthropological Research 76(2) (forthcoming 2020).
Nowell, A., Walker, C., Cordova, C. E., Ames, C. J. H., Pokines, J. T., Stueber, D., & al-Asuliman, A. S. A. (2016). Middle Pleistocene subsistence in the Azraq Oasis, Jordan: Protein residue and other proxies. Journal of Archaeological Science, 73, 36–44.
Olgilvie, M. D., Curran, B. D., & Trinkaus, E. (1989). Incidence and patterning of enamel hypolasia in the Neanderthals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 79(1), 25–41.
Pettitt, P. (2010). Palaeolithic origin of human burial. New York: Routledge.
Pokines, J. T., & De La Paz, J. S. (2016). Recovery rates of human fetal skeletal remains using varying mesh sizes. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 61(S1), S184–S189.
Ponce de León, M. S., Golovanova, L., Doronichev, V., Romanova, G., Akazawa, T., Kondo, O., Ishida, H., & Zollikofer, C. P. E. (2008). Neanderthal brain size at birth provides insights into the evolution of human life history. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(37), 13764–13768.
Rak, Y., & Arensburg, B. (1987). Kebara 2 Neanderthal pelvis: First look at a complete inlet. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 73(2), 227–231.
Riel-Salvatore, J., & Gravel-Miguel, C. (2013). Upper Palaeolithic mortuary practices in Eurasia. In L. Nilsson Stutz & S. Tarlow (Eds.), Oxford handbook of the archaeology of death and burial (pp. 303–347). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Rosenberg, K. R., & DeSilva, J. M. (2017). Evolution of the human pelvis. The Anatomical Record, 300(5), 789–797.
Ruff, C. (2010). Body size and body shape in early hominins – Implications of the Gona pelvis. Journal of Human Evolution, 58(2), 166–178.
Scheper-Hughes, N. (1985). Culture, scarcity, and maternal thinking: Maternal detachment and infant survival in a Brazilian shantytown. Ethos, 13(4), 291–317.
Simpson, S. W., Quade, J., Levin, N. E., Butler, R., Dupont-Nivet, G., Everett, M., & Semaw, S. (2008). A female Homo erectus pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia. Science, 322(5904), 1089–1092.
Skinner, M. (1997). Dental wear in immature Late Pleistocene European hominines. Journal of Archaeological Science, 24(8), 677–700.
Skinner, M. F., & Sperber, G. H. (1982). Atlas of radiographs of early man. New York: Liss.
Smith, B. H. (1993). The physiological age of KNM-WT 15000. In R. Leakey & A. Walker (Eds.), The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton (pp. 195–220). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Smith, P. K. (2010). Children and play. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.
Smith, T. M., Machanda, Z., Bernard, A. B., Donovan, R. M., Papakyrikos, A. M., Muller, M. N., & Wrangham, R. (2013). First molar eruption, weaning, and life history in living wild chimpanzees. Proceedings National Academy of Sciences, 110(8), 2787–2791.
Smith, T. M., Austin, C., Green, D. R., Joannes-Boyau, R., Bailey, S., Dumitriu, D., Fallon, S., Grün, R., James, H. F., Moncel, M.-H., Williams, I. S., Wood, R., & Arora, M. (2018). Wintertime stress, nursing, and lead exposure in Neanderthal children. Science Advances, 4(10), eaau9483.
Stone, P. K. (2016). Biocultural perspectives on maternal mortality and obstetrical death from the past to the present. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 159(S6), S150–S171.
Stone, P. K., & Walrath, D. (2006). The gendered skeleton: Anthropological interpretations of the bony pelvis. In R. Gowland & C. Knüsel (Eds.), Social archaeology of funerary remains (pp. 168–178). Oxford, UK: Oxbow Books.
Sutikna, T., Tocheri, M. W., Morwood, M. J., Saptomo, E. W., Jatmiko, Awe, R. D., Wasisto, S., Westaway, K. E., Aubert, M., Li, B., Zhao, J.-X., Storey, M., Alloway, B. V., Morley, M. W., Meijer, H. J. M., van den Bergh, G. D., Grün, R., Dosseto, A., Brumm, A., Jungers, W. L., & Roberts, R. G. (2016). Revised stratigraphy and chronology for Homo floresiensis at Liang Bua in Indonesia. Nature, 532, 366–369. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature17179.
Tague, R. G., & Lovejoy, C. O. (1986). The obstetric pelvis of A.L. 288-1 (Lucy). Journal of Human Evolution, 15(4), 237–255.
Tecot, S., & Baden, A. L. (2015). Primate allomaternal care. In R. A. Scott & S. M. Kosslyn (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences. New York: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0263.
Tomasello, M. (2014). A natural history of human thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Trevathan, W. (2015). Primate pelvic anatomy and implications for birth. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 370(1663), 20140065.
VanSickle, C., Cofran, Z., García-Martínez, D., Williams, S. A., Churchill, S. E., Berger, L. R., & Hawks, J. (2018). Homo naledi pelvic remains from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution, 125, 122–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.10.001.
Walker, A., & Leakey, R. (1993). The postcranial bones. In A. Walker & R. Leakey (Eds.), The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton (pp. 95–160). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Walker, A., & Ruff, C. B. (1993). The reconstruction of the pelvis. In A. Walker & R. Leakey (Eds.), The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton (pp. 221–233). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wall-Scheffler, C. M. (2012). Energetics, locomotion, and female reproduction: Implications for human evolution. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 71–85.
Wall-Scheffler, C. M., & Myers, M. J. (2013). Reproductive costs for everyone: How female loads impact human mobility strategies. Journal of Human Evolution, 64(5), 448–455.
Wall-Scheffler, C. M., & Myers, M. J. (2017). The biomechanical and energetic advantages of a mediolaterally wide pelvis in women. The Anatomical Record, 300(4), 764–775.
Wall-Scheffler, C. M., Geiger, K., & Steudel-Numbers, K. L. (2007). Infant carrying: The role of increased locomotory costs in early tool development. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 133(2), 841–846.
Warrener, A. G. (2017). Hominin hip biomechanics: Changing perspectives. The Anatomical Record, 300(5), 932–945.
Warrener, A. G., Lewton, K. L., Pontzer, H., & Lieberman, D. E. (2015). A wider pelvis does not increase locomotor cost in humans, with implications for the evolution of childbirth. PLoS One, 10(3), e0118903.
Washburn, S. L. (1960). Tools and human evolution. Scientific American, 203, 63–75.
Weaver, T. D., & Hublin, J. J. (2009). Neanderthal birth canal shape and the evolution of human childbirth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(20), 8151–8156.
Weaver, T. D., Coqueugniot, H., Golovanova, L. V., Doronichev, V. B., Maureille, B., & Hublin, J.-J. (2016). Neonatal postcrania from Mezmaiskaya, Russia, and Le Moustier, France, and the development of Neanderthal body form. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 113(23), 6472–6477. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1523677113pmid:27217565.
Wells, J. C. (2015). Between scylla and charybdis: Renegotiating resolution of the “obstetric dilemma” in response to ecological change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 370(1663), 20140067.
Wells, J. C. (2017). The new “obstetrical dilemma”: Stunting, obesity and the risk of obstructed labour. The Anatomical Record, 300(4), 716–731.
Wells, J. C., Desilva, J. M., & Stock, J. T. (2012). The obstetric dilemma: An ancient game of Russian roulette, or a variable dilemma sensitive to ecology? American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149(S55), 40–71.
White, T. D., Asfaw, B., Beyene, Y., Haile-Selassie, Y., Lovejoy, C. O., Suwa, G., & WoldeGabriel, G. (2009). Ardipithecus ramidus and the paleobiology of early hominids. Science, 326(5949), 64–86.
Zilhão, J. (2005). Burial evidence for the social differentiation of age classes in the early Upper Paleolithic. In D. Vialou, J. Renault-Miskovsky, & M. Patou-Mathis (Eds.), Comportements des Hommes du Paléolithique moyen et supérieur en Europe: territoires et milieux (pp. 231–241). Liège: ERAUL. Actes du Colloque de G.D.R. 1945 du CNRS.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nowell, A., Kurki, H. (2020). Moving Beyond the Obstetrical Dilemma Hypothesis: Birth, Weaning and Infant Care in the Plio-Pleistocene. In: Gowland, R., Halcrow, S. (eds) The Mother-Infant Nexus in Anthropology. Bioarchaeology and Social Theory. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27393-4_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27393-4_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-27392-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-27393-4
eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)