Abstract
This chapter examines how the Palestinian experience in the aftermath of the Arab-Israeli War of June 1967 informs Beginnings. My analyses show that the work’s method is an empowering form of cultural politics, which Said elaborates by fusing Michel Foucault’s intellectual project with the combined energies of Blackmur, Merleau-Ponty, Sartre, and Erich Auerbach, whose philology embodies the theme of the authority of criticism in the double sense of responsibility and intervention. Next, I argue that Said recuperates the first stirrings of Foucault’s antihumanism into a humanistic approach to discourse analysis that safeguards individual agency by defining all writing as the product of an intentional position taken up by its author in relation to a pre-existing discourse; hence opening up the possibility of political intervention.
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Notes
- 1.
The consensus among scholars about this is overwhelming. See, for instance, Ageel (2016), Carey (2001), Chomsky and Pappe (2015), Finkelstein (2001), Geva (2016), Hass (2002), Morris (1989), Pappe (1999, 2007), Piterberg (2001), Reinhart (2002), Rogan and Shlaim (2001), Sa’di and Abu-Lughod (2007), Said (1979), Said and Hitchens (2001), Sand (2010, 2014), Shlaim (1990, 2000, 2009), and Sternhell (1998).
- 2.
Shortly thereafter, in 1968–1969, Said reiterated these claims in “The Palestinian Experience” (1994), an essay that should also be read as a response to the emerging discussions about the Holocaust in U.S. public discourse. According to Said, the Palestinian experience of the Nakba is the result of the Jewish experience in the Shoah. The essay is rife with indignation that in finally addressing Jewish suffering in the Holocaust, American elites are blind to the deeply entwined experience of Palestinian suffering (see also Said 1979, 56–114).
- 3.
Admittedly, Hussein does mention the influence of phenomenology in and on Said’s method, just not its existentialist, worldly variant. He is right to argue that the phenomenological notion of ‘intentionality’ as elaborated in the works of Husserl still makes up the philosophical spine of Said’s meditation on beginnings (Hussein 2002, 98, 128).
- 4.
Brennan, Mufti, and Robbins have precisely examined the importance of Auerbach’s philological approach to comparative literature on Said’s critical practice from Beginnings onward. In this respect, Brennan (Brennan 1992, 2004, 2006, 2013) by far provides the most complete account. For the particular importance of Auerbach’s concept of Weltliteratur on Said, see Robbins’s Secular Vocations: Intellectualism, Professionalism, Culture (1993), as well as the essays of Mufti (1998) and Ned Curthoys (2007). A critical counterpoint to that dominant narrative can be found in Emily Apter’s The Translation Zone (2006). Apter reconsiders the influence which Auerbach is said to have had on Said’s critical practice in favor of Spitzer, Auerbach’s fellow émigré and colleague in Istanbul, whom she believes to have had a more lasting impact on Said.
- 5.
Originally published in German in 1946, the first English translation of Mimesis dates from 1953. The edition of Mimesis I will refer to is the 50th anniversary edition of that translation (2003). A telling sign of Auerbach’s influence on Said’s critical practice, Said himself wrote the introduction to the anniversary edition.
- 6.
The specific originating context of Auerbach’s writing in Istanbul has been a focus of Emily Apter’s “Global Translatio: The ‘Invention’ of Comparative Literature, Istanbul, 1933” (2003) and Kader Konuk’s East-West Mimesis: Auerbach in Turkey (2010). Contrast their work to Abdul JanMohamed’s, who argues that Mimesis “could have been written in any other part of the non-Occidental world without significant difference” (1992, 98–99).
- 7.
According to Alex Woloch, this lack of metacritical reflection has led many critics in the so-called golden age of theory of the 1980s–1990s to undervalue the theory and method of Mimesis (2014). Woloch singles out the writings of prominent critics of that period such as Stephen Greenblatt, Frederic Jameson, and Said, who have all at one time in their careers expressed their admiration for Mimesis but, in his view, have all at the same time misread that book as if it didn’t have a theoretical method. The result of their undertheorizing, he writes, is that Mimesis has become “particularly invisible … in terms of method; as a book that we might not simply admire … but analyse, situate and incorporate into the work that we do” (Woloch 2014, 113)—before going on to analyze the method of Mimesis in the remainder of his article. While I do not wish to comment on Greenblatt’s or Jameson’s reading of Auerbach, my analysis of the influence of Mimesis in and on the method of Beginnings should serve as a counterpoint to Woloch’s intervention, because it shows that Said does not undertheorize Auerbach’s book, but precisely analyzes, situates, and incorporates its method into his own work.
- 8.
Vico’s philosophical endeavors are absolutely central to Auerbach’s practice as a critic and philologist. In 1924 Auerbach translated the Scienza Nuova in German (Vico 1924) and provided it with an important introduction to explain the work’s method (Auerbach 1924). In the years thereafter, he wrote relentlessly on the Neapolitan philosopher. Apart from the innumerous mentions and references to him throughout Dante als Dichter der irdischen Welt (1929) and Mimesis (1946), Auerbach dedicated many essays to explaining Vico’s philology (1949, 1958, 2014b, c, d, e). For examinations of the links between Auerbach and Vico, see Bahti (1981), Bremmer (1999), Breslin (1961), Meuer (2007), and Wellek (1978). For examinations of the links between Said and Vico, see especially the works of Brennan (1992, 2005, 2014).
- 9.
Bové’s Intellectuals in Power: A Genealogy of Critical Humanism (1986) offers an excellent comparison of the works of Nietzsche, Foucault, and Said. However, Bové only takes into consideration the differences between Foucault and Said in the latter’s Orientalism and works that followed it, leaving out the pivotal work Beginnings (1986, 27).
- 10.
To be clear, I am hereby not arguing that Foucault does not allow intellectuals to play a role in society. On the contrary, the intellectual has an important, powerful, political function to play in specific, local struggles (Foucault 1980), just not in the generalist-intellectual sense embodied by existentialist intellectuals like Sartre who frequently spoke on public matters of general interest (Baert 2015, 156). Said’s view of the intellectual is at odds with Foucault’s. By stressing the amateurism of intellectuals—by which he means that intellectuals should also be allowed to speak on matters that transcend their specialized knowledge—and believing that every intellectual has the moral obligation to ‘speak truth to power’, he clearly ranks himself in the Sartrean camp. This will become more clear in the final sections of the next chapter.
- 11.
For a history of the decline of existentialism in France and the rise of not just Foucault but of structuralism and poststructuralism in France in general, see Patrick Baert’s The Existentialist Movement: The Rise of Sartre as a Public Intellectual (2015, 135–157) and especially François Dosse’s two-volumed L’Histoire du structuralisme (1992a, b).
- 12.
Whether Said’s assessment is an indication that Foucault ultimately fails in his critical attempts to combat the hegemony of humanism, I leave to others. See, for instance, the work of David Carroll who in analyzing a ‘crypto-subjectivity’ in Foucault’s archeological work also mentions Said’s ‘defense’ of humanism in Foucault (1978), or Bové’s assessment that, in its opposition to humanism, the work of Foucault is severely limited in its revolutionary potential and critical capacity as it becomes “paradoxically dependent for its own authority on the hegemonic humanistic discourse” (1986, 3).
- 13.
Foucault’s approach is most clear in the introduction to his 1961 Folie et déraison, a study that largely revolves around two distinct moments in history with two equally distinct treatments of madness: “Dans l’histoire de la folie, deux événements signalent cette altération avec une singulière netteté: 1657, la création de l’Hôpital général, et le ‘grand renfermement’ des pauvres; 1794, libération des enchaînés de Bicêtre” (1961, 10). The former moment is marked by a blind repression of madness in an absolutist regime, the other by the progressive discoveries of positivistic science. Foucault’s goal is to note the difference, not what caused these epistemic changes.
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Vandeviver, N. (2019). Beginning Anew. In: Edward Said and the Authority of Literary Criticism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27351-4_4
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