Abstract
Throughfall erosivity is necessary for the prediction of soil erosion in some forests with little protective ground cover. Throughfall drops and erosivity were compared with open rainfall and at four different crown positions beneath the canopy in a teak plantation in Thailand. Throughfall was partitioned into free throughfall, splash throughfall, and canopy drip using drop size distributions of both open rainfall and throughfall. Compared with open rainfall, (1) throughfall drops were lower in number but larger in size due to the coalescence of raindrops on canopies; (2) throughfall drops, especially canopy drip, had lower velocity due to insufficient fall distance from the canopy to the forest floor to reach terminal velocity, which partly depends on crown base height and the vertical distribution of foliage; and (3) throughfall usually had higher kinetic energy due to larger drop size, which depends on the amount of canopy drip and the crown base height. Throughfall kinetic energy was higher in mid-crown positions than in the gap or near-stem positions. Compared to mid-crown positions, the gap position had smaller drops and less canopy drip, while the near-stem position had lower drop fall velocity. The erosivity of throughfall with respect to crown position is useful to better understand canopy–water–soil interactions, develop high-resolution maps of potential soil erosion risk, and help maintain forest productivity.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Andsager K, Beard KV, Laird NF (1999) Laboratory measurements of axis ratios for large raindrops. J Atmos Sci 56:2673–2683. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1999)056<2673:LMOARF>2.0.CO;2
Angulo-Martínez M, Beguería S, Latorre B, Fernández-Raga M (2018) Comparison of precipitation measurements by OTT Parsivel 2 and Thies LPM optical disdrometers. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 22:2811–2837. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2811-2018
Atlas D, Srivastava RC, Sekhon RS (1973) Doppler radar characteristics of precipitation at vertical incidence. Rev Geophys Space Phys 11:1–35. https://doi.org/10.1029/RG011i001p00001
Atlas D, Ulbrich CW, Meneghini R (1984) The multi parameter remote measurement of rainfall. Radio Sci 19:3–21. https://doi.org/10.1029/RS019i001p00003
Beard KV (1976) Terminal velocity and shape of cloud and precipitation drops aloft. J Atmos Sci 33:851–864. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033<0851:TVASOC>2.0.CO;2
Bell TIW (1973) Erosion in the Trinidad teak plantations. Commonw For Rev 52:223–233
Brandes EA, Vivekanandan J, Wilson JW (1999) A comparison of radar reflectivity estimates of rainfall from collocated radars. J Atmos Ocean Technol 16:1264–1272. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(1999)016<1264:ACORRE>2.0.CO;2
Brevik EC, Cerdà A, Mataix-Solera J, Pereg L, Quinton JN, Six J et al (2015) The interdisciplinary nature of SOIL. SOIL 1:117–129. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-1-117-2015
Calder IR (2001) Canopy processes: implications for transpiration, interception and splash induced erosion, ultimately for forest management and water resources. Plant Ecol 153:203–214. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017580311070
Calder IR, Hall RL, Prasanna KT (1993) Hydrological impact of Eucalyptus plantation in India. J Hydrol 150:635–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(93)90129-W
Cerdà A (1999) Parent material and vegetation affect soil erosion in eastern Spain. Soil Sci Soc Am J 63:362–368. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1999.03615995006300020014x
Carlyle-Moses DE, Gash JHC (2011) Rainfall interception loss by forest canopies. In: Levia DF, Carlyle-Moses DE, Tanaka T (eds) Forest hydrology and biogeochemistry, Ecological studies (Analysis and synthesis), vol 216. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 407–423. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1363-5_20
Chapman G (1948) Size of raindrops and their striking force at the soil surface in a red pine plantation. Trans Am Geophys Union 29:664–670. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR029i005p00664
Dunkerley D (2000) Measuring interception loss and canopy storage in dryland vegetation: a brief review and evaluation of available research strategies. Hydrol Process 14:669–678. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200003)14:4<669::AID-HYP965>3.0.CO;2-I
Ellison WD (1947) Soil erosion studies – Part I. Agric Eng 28:145–146
Erpul G, Gabriels D, Janssens D (1998) Assessing the drop size distribution of simulated rainfall in a wind tunnel. Soil Tillage Res 45:455–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0933-3630(97)00030-5
Fernández-Moya J, Alvarado A, Forsythe W, Ramírez L, Algeet-Abarquero N, Marchamalo-Sacristán M (2014) Soil erosion under teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) plantations: general patterns, assumptions and controversies. Catena 123:236–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.08.010
Fernández-Raga M, Palencia C, Keesstra S, Jordán A, Fraile R, Angulo-Martínez M et al (2017) Splash erosion: a review with unanswered questions. Earth Sci Rev 171:463–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.06.009
Frasson RPM, Krajewski WF (2011) Characterization of the drop-size distribution and velocity–diameter relation of the throughfall under the maize canopy. Agric For Meteorol 151:1244–1251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.05.001
Frasson RPM, Krajewski WF (2013) Rainfall interception by maize canopy: development and application of a process-based model. J Hydrol 489:246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.03.019
Geißler C, Nadrowski K, Kühn P, Baruffol M, Bruelheide H, Schmid B et al (2013) Kinetic energy of throughfall in subtropical forests of SE China – effects of tree canopy structure, functional traits, and biodiversity. PLoS One 8:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049618
Geißler C, Lang AC, von Oheimb G, Härdtle W, Baruffol M, Scholten T (2012) Impact of tree saplings on the kinetic energy of rainfall-The importance of stand density, species identity and tree architecture in subtropical forests in China. Agric For Meteorol 156:31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.12.005
Goebes P, Bruelheide H, Härdtle W, Kröber W, Kühn P, Li Y, Seitz S et al (2015a) Species-specific effects on throughfall kinetic energy in subtropical forest plantations are related to leaf traits and tree architecture. PLoS ONE 10:e0128084. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128084
Goebes P, Seitz S, Geißler C, Lassu T, Peters P, Seeger M et al (2014) Momentum or kinetic energy – how do substrate properties influence the calculation of rainfall erosivity? J Hydrol 517:310–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.05.031
Goebes P, Seitz S, Kühn P, Li Y, Niklaus PA, von Oheimb G et al (2015b) Throughfall kinetic energy in young subtropical forests: investigation on tree species richness effects and spatial variability. Agric For Meteorol 213:148–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2015.06.019
Goebes P, Schmidt K, Härdtle W, Seitz S, Stumpf F, von Oheimb G et al (2016) Rule-based analysis of throughfall kinetic energy to evaluate biotic and abiotic factor thresholds to mitigate erosive power. Prog Phys Geogr 40:431–449. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309133315624642
Gunn R, Kinzer GD (1949) The terminal velocity of fall for water droplets in stagnant air. J Meteorol 6:243–248. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1949)006<0243:TTVOFF>2.0.CO;2
Hanson DL, Steenhuis TS, Walter MF, Boll J (2004) Effects of soil degradation and management practices on the surface water dynamics in the Talgua River Watershed in Honduras. Land Degrad Dev 15:367–381. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.603
Herwitz SR, Slye RE (1995) Three-dimensional modeling of canopy tree interception of wind-driven rainfall. J Hydrol 168:205–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(94)02643-P
Jarvis PG, McNaughton KG (1986) Stomatal control of transpiration: scaling up from leaf to region. Adv Ecol Res 15:1–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60119-1
Joss J, Waldvogel A (1967) Ein Spektrograph für Niederschlagstropfen mit automatischer Auswertung. Pure Appl Geophys 68:240–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00874898
Keim RF, Skaugset AE, Weiler M (2005) Temporal persistence of spatial patterns in throughfall. J Hydrol 314:263–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.03.021
Kinnell PIA (1973) The Problem of Assessing the Erosive Power of Rainfall from Meteorological Observations 1. Soil Sci Soc Am J 37:617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurenf.2013.02.002
Krishnapillay B (2000) Silviculture and management of teak plantations. Unasylva 201:14–21
Lal R (1976) Soil erosion on Alfisols in Western Nigeria III. Effects of rainfall characteristics. Geoderma 16:389–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7061(76)90003-3
Laws JO (1941) Measurements of the fall-velocity of water-drops and raindrops. Trans Am Geophys Union 22:709–721. https://doi.org/10.1029/TR022i003p00709
Levia DF, Hudson SA, Llorens P, Nanko K (2017) Throughfall drop size distributions: a review and prospectus for future research. WIRES Water 4(e):1225. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1225
Levia DF∗, Nanko K∗, Amasaki H, Giambelluca TW, Hotta N, Iida S, Mudd RG, Nullet MA, Sakai N, Shinohara Y, Sun X, Suzuki M, Tanaka N, Tantasirin C, Yamada K (2019) Throughfall partitioning by trees. Hydrol Process 33:1698–1708. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13432. [∗denotes equal contributors]
Li Y, Yu HQ, Zhou N, Tian G, Poesen J, Zhang ZD (2015) Linking fine root and understory vegetation to channel erosion in forested hillslopes of southwestern China. Plant Soil 389:323–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-014-2362-8
Liu W, Zhu C, Wu J, Chen C (2016) Are rubber-based agroforestry systems effective in controlling rain splash erosion? Catena 147:16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.06.034
Liu J, Liu W, Li W, Jiang X, Wu J (2018a) Effects of rainfall on the spatial distribution of the throughfall kinetic energy on a small scale in a rubber plantation. Hydrol Sci J 63:1078–1090. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2018.1473580
Liu J, Liu W, Zhu K (2018b) Throughfall kinetic energy and its spatial characteristics under rubber-based agroforestry systems. Catena 161:113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.10.014
Löffler-Mang M, Joss J (2000) An optical disdrometer for measuring size and velocity of hydrometeors. J Atmos Ocean Technol 17:130–139. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017<0130:AODFMS>2.0.CO;2
Marshall JS, Palmer WMK (1948) The distribution of raindrops with size. J Meteorol 5:165–166. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1948)005<0165:TDORWS>2.0.CO;2
Meyer LD, Wischmeier WH (1969) Mathematical simulation of the process of soil erosion by water. Trans ASAE 12:754–758. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.38945
Miura S, Hirai K, Yamada T (2002) Transport rates of surface materials on steep forested slopes induced by raindrop splash erosion. J For Res 7:201–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02763133
Miura S, Ugawa S, Yoshinaga S, Yamada T, Hirai K (2015) Floor cover percentage determines splash erosion in Chamaecyparis obtusa forests. Soil Sci Soc Am J 79:1782–1791. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2015.05.0171
Morgan RPC (2005) Soil erosion and conservation, 3rd edn. Blackwell, Oxford
Moss AJ, Green TW (1987) Erosive effects of the large water drops (gravity drops) that fall from plants. Aust J Soil Res 25:9–20. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9870009
Nakaya K, Wakamatsu T, Ikeda H, Abe S, Toyoda Y (2011) Development of raindrop kinetic energy model under canopy for the estimation of soil erosion in forest (in Japanese with English summary). CRIEPI Res Rep 2011: V11001
Nanko K, Giambelluca TW, Sutherland RA, Mudd RG, Nullet MA, Ziegler AD (2015) Erosion potential under Miconia calvescens stands on the Island of Hawai‘i. Land Degrad Dev 26:218–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2200
Nanko K, Hotta N, Suzuki M (2004) Assessing raindrop impact energy at the forest floor in a mature Japanese cypress plantation using continuous raindrop-sizing instruments. J For Res 9:157–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10310-003-0067-6
Nanko K, Hotta N, Suzuki M (2006) Evaluating the influence of canopy species and meteorological factors on throughfall drop size distribution. J Hydrol 329:422–431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.02.036
Nanko K, Hudson SA, Levia DF (2016a) Differences in throughfall drop size distributions in the presence and absence of foliage. Hydrol Sci J 61:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2015.1052454
Nanko K, Mizugaki S, Onda Y (2008a) Estimation of soil splash detachment rates on the forest floor of an unmanaged Japanese cypress plantation based on field measurements of throughfall drop sizes. Catena 72:348–361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2007.07.002
Nanko K, Moskalski SM, Torres R (2016b) Rainfall erosivity-intensity relationships for normal rainfall events and a tropical cyclone on the US southeast coast. J Hydrol 534:440–450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2016.01.022
Nanko K, Onda Y, Ito A, Moriwaki H (2008b) Effect of canopy thickness and canopy saturation on the amount and kinetic energy of throughfall: an experimental approach. Geophys Res Lett 35:L05401. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL033010
Nanko K, Onda Y, Ito A, Moriwaki H (2011) Spatial variability of throughfall under a single tree: experimental study of rainfall amount, raindrops, and kinetic energy. Agric For Meteorol 151:1173–1182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.04.006
Nanko K, Watanabe A, Hotta N, Suzuki M (2013) Physical interpretation of the difference in drop size distributions of leaf drips among tree species. Agric For Meteorol 169:74–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2012.09.018
Onda Y, Gomi T, Mizugaki S, Nonoda T, Sidle RC (2010) An overview of the field and modelling studies on the effects of forest devastation on flooding and environmental issues. Hydrol Process 24:527–534. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.7548
Pandy D, Brown C (2000) Teak: a global overview. Unasylva 201:3–13
Robson JJ, Neal C, Ryland GPP, Harrow M (1994) Spatial variations in throughfall chemistry at the small plot scale. J Hydrol 158:107–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(94)90048-5
Saint-Jean S, Chelle M, Huber L (2004) Modelling water transfer by rain-splash in a 3D canopy using Monte Carlo integration. Agric For Meteorol 121:183–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2003.08.034
Scholten T, Geißler C, Goc J, Kühn P, Wiegand C (2011) A new splash cup to measure the kinetic energy of rainfall. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 174:596–601. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201000349
Sempere-Torres D, Porra JM, Creutin JD (1994) A general formulation for raindrop size distribution. J Appl Meteorol 33:1494–1502. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1994)033<1494:AGFFRS>2.0.CO;2
Shinohara Y, Ichinose K, Morimoto M, Kubota T, Nanko K (2018) Factors influencing the erosivity indices of raindrops in Japanese cypress plantations. Catena 171:54–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.06.030
Sidle RC, Ziegler AD, Negishi JN, Nik AR, Siew R, Turkelboom F (2006) Erosion processes in steep terrain – truths, myths, and uncertainties related to forest management in Southeast Asia. For Ecol Manage 224:199–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.12.019
Song Z, Seitz S, Zhu P, Goebes P, Shi X, Xu S et al (2018) Spatial distribution of LAI and its relationship with throughfall kinetic energy of common tree species in a Chinese subtropical forest plantation. For Ecol Manage 425:189–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2018.05.046
Staelens J, De Schrijver A, Verheyen K, Verhoest NEC (2006) Spatial variability and temporal stability of throughfall water under a dominant beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) tree in relationship to canopy cover. J Hydrol 330:651–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.04.032
Tanaka N, Levia D, Igarashi Y, Nanko K, Yoshifuji N, Tanaka K et al (2015) Throughfall under a teak plantation in Thailand: a multifactorial analysis on the effects of canopy phenology and meteorological conditions. Int J Biometeorol 59:1145–1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0926-1
Tangtham N (1992) Soil erosion problem in teak plantation. Proceedings of the seminar on 50th anniversary of Huay-Tak teak plantation: 60th birthday celebration of her Majesty the Queen of Thailand. Royal Forestry Department, Bangkok, pp 247–259
Tashiro-Uchimura Y, Mizunaga H (2017) Dynamics of remaining amount and vertical distribution of a Cryptomeria japonica needle litter created by non-commercial thinning (in Japanese with English summary). Jpn J For Environ 59:13–25. https://doi.org/10.18922/jjfe.59.1_13
Terry JP (1996) Erosion pavement formation and slope process interactions in commercial forest plantations, northern Portugal. Zeitschrift für Geomorphol Suppl Issues 40:97–115
Ulbrich CW (1983) Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution. J Clim Appl Meteorol 22:1764–1775. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1983)022<1764:NVITAF>2.0.CO;2
van Dijk AIJM, Bruijnzeel LA, Rosewell CJ (2002) Rainfall intensity–kinetic energy relationships: a critical literature appraisal. J Hydrol 261:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(02)00020-3
Wang PK, Pruppacher HR (1977) Acceleration to terminal velocity of cloud and raindrops. J Appl Meteorol 16:275–280. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1977)016<0275:ATTVOC>2.0.CO;2
Wischmeier WH, Smith DD (1978) Predicting rainfall erosion. (Agricultural handbook no. 537) United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC
Yang X, Madden LV (1993) Effect of ground cover, rain intensity and strawberry plants on splash of simulated raindrops. Agric For Meteorol 65:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1923(93)90035-G
Zhou G, Wei X, Yan J (2002) Impacts of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus exserta) plantation on sediment yield in Guangdong Province, Southern China—a kinetic energy approach. Catena 49:231–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0341-8162(02)00030-9
Ziegler AD, Fox JM, Xu J (2009) The rubber juggernaut. Science 324(80):1024–1025. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1173833
Zimmermann A, Zimmermann B (2014) Requirements for throughfall monitoring: the roles of temporal scale and canopy complexity. Agric For Meteorol 189–190:125–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2014.01.014
Zimmermann A, Zimmermann B, Elsenbeer H (2009) Rainfall redistribution in a tropical forest: spatial and temporal patterns. Water Resour Res 45:W11413. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008WR007470
Acknowledgments
The work was funded by JSPS KAKENHI Grant numbers JP17780119, JP15H05626, and JP17KK0159 and the CREST Program of JST (Japan Science and Technology Agency).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nanko, K., Tanaka, N., Leuchner, M., Levia, D.F. (2020). Throughfall Erosivity in Relation to Drop Size and Crown Position: A Case Study from a Teak Plantation in Thailand. In: Levia, D.F., Carlyle-Moses, D.E., Iida, S., Michalzik, B., Nanko, K., Tischer, A. (eds) Forest-Water Interactions. Ecological Studies, vol 240. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_12
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26086-6_12
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-26085-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-26086-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)