Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Atherosclerosis of the Carotid Artery

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Vessel Based Imaging Techniques

Abstract

Atherosclerosis, a disease affecting the large- and medium-sized vessels, is present in every human being. Atherosclerotic plaques can directly or indirectly cause obstruction of the arterial blood supply, causing ischemic damage distal from the occlusion.

Atherosclerotic plaque development is influenced by the interplay between systemic parameters, like cholesterol levels, and local factors, like turbulent flow. This phenomenon makes atherosclerotic disease and its consequences similar, but not identical, in different vascular beds.

In this chapter we will describe the unique features of carotid atherosclerosis. The pathophysiology of the atherosclerotic disease in the carotid artery is unique due the local anatomy and the role of the carotid artery in supplying the brain. We will describe the atherosclerotic disease of the carotid artery by starting at the molecular level, then describing vulnerable plaques and the unique features of carotid atherosclerosis, and end by discussing the influence of risk factors in carotid atherosclerosis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Lusis AJ. Atherosclerosis. Nature. 2000;407:233–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Kwak BR, Bäck M, Bochaton-Piallat ML, et al. Biomechanical factors in atherosclerosis: mechanisms and clinical implications. Eur Heart J. 2014;35:3013–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Chistiakov DA, Melnichenko AA, Myasoedova VA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN. Mechanisms of foam cell formation in atherosclerosis. J Mol Med. 2017;95:1153–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Bäck M, Weber C, Lutgens E. Regulation of atherosclerotic plaque inflammation. J Intern Med. 2015;278:462–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Gerhardt T, Ley K. Monocyte trafficking across the vessel wall. Cardiovasc Res. 2015;107:321–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, Genest J, Gotto AM Jr, Kastelein JJ, Koenig W, Libby P, Lorenzatti AJ, MacFadyen JG, Nordestgaard BG, Shepherd J, Willerson JT, Glynn RJ. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195–207.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Boese AC, Kim SC, Yin K-J, Lee J-P, Hamblin MH. Sex differences in vascular physiology and pathophysiology: estrogen and androgen signaling in health and disease. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00217.2016.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Arida A, Protogerou AD, Kitas GD, Sfikakis PP. Systemic inflammatory response and atherosclerosis: the paradigm of chronic inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19:1–27.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kachur S, Morera R, De Schutter A, Lavie CJ. Cardiovascular risk in patients with prehypertension and the metabolic syndrome. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-018-0801-2.

  10. Wierda RJ, Geutskens SB, Jukema JW, Quax PHA, van den Elsen PJ. Epigenetics in atherosclerosis and inflammation. J Cell Mol Med. 2010;14:1225–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Schunkert H, von Scheidt M, Kessler T, Stiller B, Zeng L, Vilne B. Genetics of coronary artery disease in the light of genome-wide association studies. Clin Res Cardiol. 2018;107:2–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Einarson TR, Acs A, Ludwig C, Panton UH. Prevalence of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes: a systematic literature review of scientific evidence from across the world in 2007-2017. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2018;17:1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Mahmood SS, Levy D, Vasan RS, Wang TJ. The Framingham Heart Study and the epidemiology of cardiovascular disease: a historical perspective. Lancet. 2014;383:999–1008.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Navarese EP, Robinson JG, Kowalewski M, Kołodziejczak M, Andreotti F, Bliden K, Tantry U, Kubica J, Raggi P, Gurbel PA. Association between baseline LDL-C level and total and cardiovascular mortality after LDL-C lowering a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2018;319:1566–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Keech AC, et al. Evolocumab and clinical outcomes in patients with cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1713–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Ridker PM, Revkin J, Amarenco P, et al. Cardiovascular efficacy and safety of Bococizumab in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med. 2017;376:1527–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bełtowski J. Liver X receptors (LXR) as therapeutic targets in dyslipidemia. Cardiovasc Ther. 2008;26:297–316.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Helkin A, Stein JJ, Lin S, Siddiqui S, Maier KG, Gahtan V. Dyslipidemia part 1 - review of lipid metabolism and vascular cell physiology. Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2016;50:107–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al. Cardiovascular risk reduction with icosapent ethyl for hypertriglyceridemia. N Engl J Med. 2019;308:11–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. März W, Kleber ME, Scharnagl H, Speer T, Zewinger S, Ritsch A, Parhofer KG, von Eckardstein A, Landmesser U, Laufs U. HDL cholesterol: reappraisal of its clinical relevance. Clin Res Cardiol. 2017;106:663–75.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. AIM-HIGH Investigators, Boden WE, Probstfield JL, Anderson T, Chaitman BR, Desvignes-Nickens P, Koprowicz K, McBride R, Teo K, Weintraub W. Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy. N Engl J Med. 2011;365:2255–67.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Hanna RN, Shaked I, Hubbeling HG, et al. NR4A1 (Nur77) deletion polarizes macrophages toward an inflammatory phenotype and increases atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 2012;110:416–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hamers AAJ, Vos M, Rassam F, Marincovic G, Kurakula K, Van Gorp PJ, De Winther MPJ, Gijbels MJJ, De Waard V, De Vries CJM. Bone marrow-specific deficiency of nuclear receptor Nur77 enhances atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 2012;110:428–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Libby P, Nahrendorf M, Swirski FK. Monocyte heterogeneity in cardiovascular disease. Semin Immunopathol. 2013;5:553–62.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Wong KL, Tai JJY, Wong WC, Han H, Sem X, Yeap WH, Kourilsky P, Wong SC. Gene expression profiling reveals the defining features of the classical, intermediate, and nonclassical human monocyte subsets. Blood. 2011; https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2010-12-326355.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cignarella A, Tedesco S, Cappellari R, Fadini GP. The continuum of monocyte phenotypes: experimental evidence and prognostic utility in assessing cardiovascular risk. J Leukoc Biol. 2018;103:1021–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Zawadaa AM, Rogaceva KS, Schirmer SH, Sester M, Böhm M, Flisera D, Heine GH. Monocyte heterogeneity in human cardiovascular disease. Immunobiology. 2012;217:1273–84.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Di Gregoli K, Johnson JL. Role of colony-stimulating factors in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2012;23:412–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Gordon S, Martinez FO. Alternative activation of macrophages: mechanism and functions. Immunity. 2010;32:593–604.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Colin S, Chinetti-gbaguidi G, Staels B. Macrophage phenotypes in atherosclerosis. Immunol Rev. 2014;262:153–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Duewell P, Kono H, Rayner KJ, et al. NLRP3 inflammasomes are required for atherogenesis and activated by cholesterol crystals. Nature. 2010;464:1357–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Ridker PM, Everett BM, Thuren T, et al. Antiinflammatory therapy with Canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1707914.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Maguire EM, Pearce SWA, Xiao Q. Foam cell formation: a new target for fighting atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Vasc Pharmacol. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vph.2018.08.002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Drechsler M, Megens RTA, Van Zandvoort M, Weber C, Soehnlein O. Hyperlipidemia-triggered neutrophilia promotes early atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2010;122:1837–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Prame Kumar K, Nicholls AJ, Wong CHY. Partners in crime: neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages in inflammation and disease. Cell Tissue Res. 2018;371:551–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Myasoedova VA, Chistiakov DA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN. Matrix metalloproteinases in pro-atherosclerotic arterial remodeling. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2018;123:159–67.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Silvestre-Roig C, De Winther MP, Weber C, Daemen MJ, Lutgens E, Soehnlein O. Atherosclerotic plaque destabilization: mechanisms, models, and therapeutic strategies. Circ Res. 2014;114:214–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Mehta NN, Yu Y, Pinnelas R, Krishnamoorthy P, Shin DB, Troxel AB, Gelfand JM. Attributable risk estimate of severe psoriasis on major cardiovascular events. Am J Med. 2011;124:775.e1-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Liu C-L, Zhang J-Y, Shi G-P. Interaction between allergic asthma and atherosclerosis. Transl Res. 2016;174:5–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Jonasson L, Holm J, Skalli O, Bondjers G, Hansson GK. Regional accumulations of T cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in the human atherosclerotic plaque. Arteriosclerosis. 1986;6:131–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Hermansson A, Johansson DK, Ketelhuth DFJ, Andersson J, Zhou X, Hansson GK. Immunotherapy with tolerogenic apolipoprotein B-100-loaded dendritic cells attenuates atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic mice. Circulation. 2011;123:1083–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Hedrick CC. Lymphocytes in atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2015;35:253–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Legein B, Temmerman L, Biessen EAL, Lutgens E. Inflammation and immune system interactions in atherosclerosis. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2013;70:3847–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Hansson GK, Hermansson A. The immune system in atherosclerosis. Nat Immunol. 2011;12:204–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Bullenkamp J, Dinkla S, Kaski JC, Dumitriu IE. Targeting T cells to treat atherosclerosis: Odyssey from bench to bedside. Eur Hear J Cardiovasc Pharmacother. 2016;2:194–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kyaw T, Peter K, Li Y, Tipping P, Toh BH, Bobik A. Cytotoxic lymphocytes and atherosclerosis: significance, mechanisms and therapeutic challenges. Br J Pharmacol. 2017;174:3956–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Sage AP, Tsiantoulas D, Binder CJ, Mallat Z. The role of B cells in atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1038/s41569-018-0106-9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Virmani R, Kolodgie FD, Burke AP, Farb A, Schwartz SM. Lessons from sudden coronary death: a comprehensive morphological classification scheme for atherosclerotic lesions. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20:1262–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Dinsmore RE, Fuster V, Glagov S, Insull W, Rosenfeld ME, Schwartz CJ, Wagner WD, Wissler RW. A definition of advanced types of atherosclerotic lesions and a histological classification of atherosclerosis. A report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1995;92:1355–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Armstrong ML, Heistad DD, Megan MB, Lopez JA, Harrison DG. Reversibility of atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Clin. 1990;20:113–26.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Strong JP, Malcom GT, McMahan CA, Tracy RE, Newman WP, Herderick EE, Cornhill JF. Prevalence and extent of atherosclerosis in adolescents and young adults: implications for prevention from the Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth Study. JAMA. 1999;281:727–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Kim DN, Schmee J, Lee KT, Thomas WA. Atherosclerotic lesions in the coronary arteries of hyperlipidemic swine. Part 1. Cell increases, divisions, losses and cells of origin in first 90 days on diet. Atherosclerosis. 1987;64:231–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Mauriello A, Sangiorgi GM, Virmani R, et al. A pathobiologic link between risk factors profile and morphological markers of carotid instability. Atherosclerosis. 2010;208:572–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Redgrave JN, Gallagher P, Lovett JK, Rothwell PM. Critical cap thickness and rupture in symptomatic carotid plaques: the oxford plaque study. Stroke. 2008;39:1722–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Burke AP, Farb A, Malcom GT, Liang YH, Smialek J, Virmani R. Coronary risk factors and plaque morphology in men with coronary disease who died suddenly. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:1276–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Stone GW, Maehara A, Lansky AJ, et al. A prospective natural-history study of coronary atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2011;364:226–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Falk E, Nakano M, Bentzon JF, Finn AV, Virmani R. Update on acute coronary syndromes: the pathologists’ view. Eur Heart J. 2013;34:719–28.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Paprottka KJ, Saam D, Rübenthaler J, Schindler A, Sommer NN, Paprottka PM, Clevert DA, Reiser M, Saam T, Helck A. Prevalence and distribution of calcified nodules in carotid arteries in correlation with clinical symptoms. Radiol Med. 2017;122:449–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Diethrich EB, Pauliina Margolis M, Reid DB, Burke A, Ramaiah V, Rodriguez-Lopez JA, Wheatley G, Olsen D, Virmani R. Virtual histology intravascular ultrasound assessment of carotid artery disease: the Carotid Artery Plaque Virtual Histology Evaluation (CAPITAL) study. J Endovasc Ther. 2007;14:676–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Pasterkamp G, Den Ruijter HM, Libby P. Temporal shifts in clinical presentation and underlying mechanisms of atherosclerotic disease. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2016;14:21–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Howard DPJ, Van Lammeren GW, Rothwell PM, Redgrave JN, Moll FL, De Vries JPPM, De Kleijn DPV, Den Ruijter HM, De Borst GJ, Pasterkamp G. Symptomatic carotid atherosclerotic disease: correlations between plaque composition and ipsilateral stroke risk. Stroke. 2015;46:182–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Kolodgie FD, Yahagi K, Mori H, Romero ME, Trout HH, Finn AV, Virmani R. High-risk carotid plaque: lessons learned from histopathology. Semin Vasc Surg. 2017;30:31–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Gupta A, Baradaran H, Schweitzer AD, Kamel H, Pandya A, Delgado D, Dunning A, Mushlin AI, Sanelli PC. Carotid plaque MRI and stroke risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke. 2013;44:3071–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Yonetsu T, Jang I-K. Advances in intravascular imaging: new insights into the vulnerable plaque from imaging studies. Korean Circ J. 2018;48:1–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Ketelhuth DFJ, Bäck M. The role of matrix metalloproteinases in atherothrombosis. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2011;13:162–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Bentzon JF, Otsuka F, Virmani R, Falk E. Mechanisms of plaque formation and rupture. Circ Res. 2014;114:1852–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Mittleman MA, Mostofsky E. Physical, psychological and chemical triggers of acute cardiovascular events: preventive strategies. Circulation. 2011;124:346–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Spagnoli LG, Mauriello A, Sangiorgi G, Fratoni S, Bonanno E, Schwartz RS, Piepgras DG, Pistolese R, Ippoliti A, Holmes DR. Extracranial thrombotically active carotid plaque as a risk factor for ischemic stroke. JAMA. 2004;292:1845–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Quillard T, Franck G, Mawson T, Folco E, Libby P. Mechanisms of erosion of atherosclerotic plaques. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2017;28:434–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Watase H, Sun J, Hippe DS, et al. Carotid artery remodeling is segment specific. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2018;38:927–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Clagett GP, Robinowitz M, Youkey JR, Fisher DF, Fry RE, Myers SI, Lee EL, Collins GJ, Virmani R. Morphogenesis and clinicopathologic characteristics of recurrent carotid disease. J Vasc Surg. 1986;3:10–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Verdecchia P, Reboldi G, Angeli F, Trimarco B, Mancia G, Pogue J, Gao P, Peter S, Teo K, Yusuf S. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure changes in relation with myocardial infarction and stroke in patients with coronary artery disease. Hypertension. 2015;65:108–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Morbiducci U, Kok AM, Kwak BR, Stone PH, Steinman DA, Wentzel JJ. Atherosclerosis at arterial bifurcations: evidence for the role of haemodynamics and geometry. Thromb Haemost. 2016;115:484–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Jashari F, Ibrahimi P, Nicoll R, Bajraktari G, Wester P, Henein MY. Coronary and carotid atherosclerosis: similarities and differences. Atherosclerosis. 2013;227:193–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Chamberlain AM, Agarwal SK, Folsom AR, Duval S, Soliman EZ, Ambrose M, Eberly LE, Alonso A. Smoking and incidence of atrial fibrillation: results from the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Heart Rhythm. 2011;8:1160–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Dzeshka MS, Shantsila A, Shantsila E, Lip GYH. Atrial fibrillation and hypertension. Hypertension. 2017;70:854–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. O’Donnell MJ, Chin SL, Rangarajan S, et al. Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): a case-control study. Lancet. 2016;388:761–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Rothwell PM, Eliasziw M, Gutnikov SA, Warlow CP, Barnett HJM, Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists Collaboration. Endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis in relation to clinical subgroups and timing of surgery. Lancet. 2004;363:915–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Meschia JF, Klaas JP, Brown RD, Brott TG. Evaluation and management of atherosclerotic carotid stenosis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2017;92:1144–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Moroni F, Ammirati E, Magnoni M, D’Ascenzo F, Anselmino M, Anzalone N, Rocca MA, Falini A, Filippi M, Camici PG. Carotid atherosclerosis, silent ischemic brain damage and brain atrophy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2016;223:681–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Wang T, Mei B, Zhang J. Atherosclerotic carotid stenosis and cognitive function. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2016;146:64–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Rothwell PM, Villagra R, Gibson R, Donders RCJM, Warlow CP. Evidence of a chronic systemic cause of instability of atherosclerotic plaques. Lancet. 2000;355:19–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Alberts MJ, Bhatt DL, Mas JL, et al. Three-year follow-up and event rates in the international REduction of Atherothrombosis for Continued Health Registry. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:2318–26.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Lorenz MW, Markus HS, Bots ML, Rosvall M, Sitzer M. Prediction of clinical cardiovascular events with carotid intima-media thickness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2007;115:459–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Yoo J, Yang JH, Choi BW, et al. The frequency and risk of preclinical coronary artery disease detected using multichannel cardiac computed tomography in patients with ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis. 2012;33:286–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hamada S, Kashiwazaki D, Yamamoto S, Akioka N, Kuwayama N, Kuroda S. Impact of plaque composition on risk of coronary artery diseases in patients with carotid artery stenosis. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis. 2018;27:3599–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Chaturvedi S, Bruno A, Feasby T, Holloway R, Benavente O, Cohen SN. Carotid endarterectomy — an evidence-based review. Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment AAN. 2005; https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000176036.07558.82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Marquardt L, Geraghty OC, Mehta Z, Rothwell PM. Low risk of ipsilateral stroke in patients with asymptomatic carotid stenosis on best medical treatment: a prospective, population-based study. Stroke. 2010;41:11–7.

    Google Scholar 

  89. el-Barghouti N, Elkeles R, Nicolaides A, Geroulakos G, Dhanjil S, Diamond J. The ultrasonic evaluation of the carotid intima-media thickness and its relation to risk factors of atherosclerosis in normal and diabetic population. Int Angiol. 1997;16:50–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Wang X, Dalmeijer GW, den Ruijter HM, et al. Clustering of cardiovascular risk factors and carotid intima-media thickness: the USE-IMT study. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0173393.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Pletsch-Borba L, Selwaness M, van der Lugt A, Hofman A, Franco OH, Vernooij MW. Change in carotid plaque components: a 4-year follow-up study with serial MR imaging. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11:184–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kannel WB, Wolf PA. Peripheral and cerebral atherothrombosis and cardiovascular events in different vascular territories: insights from the Framingham Study. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2006;8:317–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Kannel WB. Hypertension: reflections on risks and prognostication. Med Clin North Am. 2009;93:541–58.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  94. Feigin VL, Roth GA, Naghavi M, et al. Global burden of stroke and risk factors in 188 countries, during 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15:913–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Csordas A, Bernhard D. The biology behind the atherothrombotic effects of cigarette smoke. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2013;10:219–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Messner B, Bernhard D. Smoking and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms of endothelial dysfunction and early atherogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2014;34:509–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Boehme AK, Esenwa C, Elkind MSV. Stroke risk factors, genetics, and prevention. Circ Res. 2017;120:472–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Mandviwala T, Khalid U, Deswal A. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: a risk factor or a risk marker? Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11883-016-0575-4.

  99. Yuan T, Yang T, Chen H, Fu D, Hu Y, Wang J, Yuan Q, Yu H, Xu W, Xie X. New insights into oxidative stress and inflammation during diabetes mellitus-accelerated atherosclerosis. Redox Biol. 2019;20:247–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Chen R, Ovbiagele B, Feng W, Carolina S, Carolina S. Diabetes and stroke: epidemiology, pathophysiology, pharmaceuticals and outcome. Am J Med Sci. 2017;351:380–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Paneni F, Lüscher TF. Cardiovascular protection in the treatment of Type 2 diabetes: a review of clinical trial results across drug classes. Am J Cardiol. 2017;120:S17–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E, Lowe G, Pepys MB, Thompson SG, Collins R, Danesh J. C-reactive protein concentration and risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and mortality: an individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010;375:132–40.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Lombardo A, Biasucci LM, Lanza GA, Coli S, Silvestri P, Cianflone D, Liuzzo G, Burzotta F, Crea F, Maseri A. Inflammation as a possible link between coronary and carotid plaque instability. Circulation. 2004;109:3158–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group, Emberson J, Bennett D, Link E, Parish S, Danesh J, Armitage J, Collins R. C-reactive protein concentration and the vascular benefits of statin therapy: an analysis of 20,536 patients in the Heart Protection Study. Lancet. 2011;377:469–76.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medical Biochemistry, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences (ACS), Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Matthijs F. Jansen & Esther Lutgens

  2. Department of Cardiology, Amsterdam UMC, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Matthijs F. Jansen

  3. Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany

    Esther Lutgens

  4. Department of Pathology, Amsterdam Cardiovascular Sciences (ACS), Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Mat J. A. P. Daemen

Authors
  1. Matthijs F. Jansen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Esther Lutgens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mat J. A. P. Daemen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mat J. A. P. Daemen .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Chun Yuan

  2. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Thomas S. Hatsukami

  3. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Mahmud Mossa-Basha

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Jansen, M.F., Lutgens, E., Daemen, M.J.A.P. (2020). Atherosclerosis of the Carotid Artery. In: Yuan, C., Hatsukami, T., Mossa-Basha, M. (eds) Vessel Based Imaging Techniques . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25249-6_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25249-6_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-25248-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-25249-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation