Advertisement

Individual Hominin Biology Beyond Earth

  • Cameron M. SmithEmail author
Chapter
First Online:
  • 302 Downloads
Part of the Space and Society book series (SPSO)

Abstract

This chapter covers the biology of the individual human (or, more broadly, hominin) in environments beyond Earth; I consider the essential properties of such environments, such as gas composition and pressure, and gravity field, but I must emphasize that decades of biology research in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) have not furnished humanity with significant information regarding the properties of environments beyond Earth we are most likely to settle for some centuries. Mars or lunar settlements will not be at 0 g, as in LEO (where a great deal of space biology research has been done), but at 0.38 g (Mars) or 0.16 g (Moon), and molecular, cellular and larger-scale physiological processes will certainly differ in such environments. What in fact have nearly three decades of continuous biology research in LEO taught us? Something about what we might encounter if we choose to fly to Mars without rotation for artificial gravitation for about 100 days–but, to be blunt, that is about it. As regards the long-term human settlement of space it is arguable that not much learned from microgravity research is directly applicable. But we must begin somewhere—and I will note that in 2016, NASA began to fund artificial gravity research—and in this chapter I review the issues of the individual human beyond Earth, specifically tracking effects on development through the course of life.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Aimar, C., Bautz, A., Durand, D., & Membre, H. (2000). Microgravity and hypergravity effects on fertilization of the salamander. Pleurodeles waltl (Urodele amphibian). Biology of Reproduction, 63, 551–558.Google Scholar
  2. American Academy of Pediatrics. (1993). Caring for your baby and young child: Birth to age 5. Online at https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED363446.
  3. Andreazolli, M., Angeloni, D., Broccoli, V., & Demontis, F. G. (2017). Microgravity, stem cells and embryonic development: Challenges and opportunities for 3D tissue generation. Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences, 4(2), 1–7.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2017.00002.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Baarends, W. M., Van der Laan, R., & Grootegoed, J. A. (2001). DNA repair mechanisms and gametogenesis. Reproduction, 121(1), 31–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Barham, G., & Clarke, N. M. P. (2008). Genetic regulation of embryological limb development with relation to congenital limb deformity in humans. Journal of Children’s Opthopaedics, 2(1), 1–9.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11832-008-0076-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Barthel, J., & Klijn, N. S. (2017). Adaptive, readily-morphing, optimized radiation shielding for transit habitats: Flyby Mars mission. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, 54(6), 1196–1201.  https://doi.org/10.2514/1.A33935.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Bateson, P., et al. (2014). Developmental plasticity and human health. Nature, 430, 419–421.  https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02725.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Black, S., Larkin, K., Jacqmotte, N., Wassersug, R., Pronych, S., & Souza, K. (1996). Regulagive development of Xenopus laevis in microgravity. Advances in Space Research, 17(6–7), 209–217.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Bogin, B., & Smith, B. H. (1996). Evolution of the human life cycle. American Journal of Human Biology, 8, 703–716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Chappell, J. C., & Bautch, V. L. (2010). Vascular Development—Genetic Mechanisms and Links to Vascular Disease. Current Topics in Developmental Biology, 90, 43–72.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S0070-2153(10)90002-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Clement, G. (2006). Introduction to space biology. In G. Clement, & K. Slenzka (Eds.). Fundamentals of space biology: Research on cells, animals and plants in space (pp. 1–50). El Segundo, California: Microcosm Press; New York: Springer.Google Scholar
  12. Clement, G. (2017). International roadmap for artificial gravity research. Microgravity, 3(29).  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-017-0034-8.
  13. Cogoli, A. (1993). The effect of space flight on human cellular immunity. Environmental Medicine, 37(2), 107–116.Google Scholar
  14. Cortese, F., et al. (2018). Vive la radiorésistance!: converging research in radiobiology and biogerontology to enhance human radioresistance for deep space exploration and colonization. Oncotarget, 9(18), 14692–14722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Crawford-Young, S. J. (2006). Effects of microgravity on cell cytoskeleton and embryogenesis. International Journal of Developmental Biology, 50(2–3), 183–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Danilchik, M. V., & Savage, R. M. (1994). Cytoskeletal organization in advancing cleave furrows of Xenopus laevis. Molecular Biology of the Cell, 5, 101.Google Scholar
  17. Dayanandan, P. (2011). Gravitational biology and space life sciences: Current status and implications for the indian space programme. Journal of Biosciences, 36, 911–919.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Denisova, L. A. (1986). Effect of weightlessness on the skeletal development of the rat fetus. Kosmicheskaia Biologiia I Aviakosmicheskaia Meditsina, 20, 60–63.Google Scholar
  19. Di Agostinio, S., Botti, F., DeCarlo, A., Sette, C., & Geremia, R. (2004, August). Meiotic progression of isolated mouse spermatocytes under simulated microgravity. Reproduction, 128, 25–32.  https://doi.org/10.1530/rep.1.00184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Dournon, C., Durand, D., Tankosic, C., Membre, H., Gualandris-Parisot, L., & Bautz, A. (2001). Effects of microgravity on the larval] development, metamorphosis and reproduction of the urodele amphibian Pleurodeles waltl. Development, Growth & Differentiation, 43, 315–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Duboule, D. (1995). Guide to the homeobox genes. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information.Google Scholar
  22. Dunlop, C. E., Telfer, E. E., & Anderson, R. A. (2014). Ovarian germline stem cells. Stem Cell Research and Therapy, 5, 98.  https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Duret, L. (2009). Mutation patterns in the human genome: More variable than expected. PLoS Biology, 7(2), 217–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Emoto, K., Takao, Y., & Kuninaka, H. (2018). A preliminary study on radiation shielding using Martian magnetic anomalies. Biological Sciences in Space, 32, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Englemann, U., Krassnig, F., & Schill, W. G. (1992). Sperm motility under conditions of weightlessness. Journal of Andrology, 13(5), 433–436.Google Scholar
  26. Ertem, G., Ertem, M. C., McKay, C. P., & Hazen, R. M. (2017). Shielding biomolecules from effects of radiation by Mars analog materials and soils. International Journal of Astrobiology, 16(3), 280–285.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Finn, L. S., Maccarrone, M., & Blaber, E. (2017, April 25). Microgravity, stem cells and embryonic development: Challenges and opportunities for 3D tissue generation. Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fspas.2017.00002.
  28. Friedberg, E. C. (2006). Mutation as a phenotype. In L. H. Caproale (Ed.), The implicit genome (pp. 39–56). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  29. Friedberg, E. C., Walker, G. C., & Seide, W. (1995). DNA repair and mutagenesis. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press.Google Scholar
  30. Fusco, G., & Minelli, A. (2004). Phenotypic plasticity in development and evolution: Facts and concepts. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 365, 547–556.  https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Future in Space Working Group. (2018). Teleconference audio archived online at the Future in Space Working Group archives at http://fiso.spiritastro.net/telecon/Ferl-Dumbacher_6-6-18/.
  32. Heyer, J. M. B. S., MacAuley, A., Behrendtsen, O., & Werb, Z. (2000). Hypersensitivity to DNA damage leads to increased apoptosis during early mouse development. Genes & Development, 14(16), 2072–2084.Google Scholar
  33. Hodkinson, P. D., Anderton, R. A., Posselt, B. N., & Fong, K. J. (2017). An overview of space medicine. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 119(S1), i43–i53.Google Scholar
  34. Holmes, D. J. (2017). Women’s health in post-menopausal age. In G. Jasienka, D. S. Sherry, & D. J. Holmes (Eds.), The arc of life: Evolution and health across the life course (pp. 139–157). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
  35. Holstein, A.-F., Schulze, W., & Davidoff, M. (2003). BioMed Central document at http://www.rbej.com/content/1/1/107.
  36. Honda, Y., et al. (2012). Genes down-regulated in spaceflight are involved in the control of longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature Scientific Reports, 2(487), 2–7.  https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Horn, E. (2006). Animal development in microgravity. In G. Clement & K. Slenzka (Eds.), Fundamentals of space biology: Research on cells, animals and plants in space (pp. 171–226). El Segundo, CA: Microcosm Press; New York: Springer.Google Scholar
  38. Hoson, T. (2014). Plant growth and morphogenesis under different gravity conditions: Relevance to plant life in space. Life, 4(2), 205–216.  https://doi.org/10.3390/life4020205.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Ibtisham, F., Wu, J., Xiao, M., An, L., et al. (2017). Progress and future prospect of in vitro spermatogenesis. Oncotarget, 8(39), 66709–66727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Ijiri, A. (2003). Life-cycle experiments of medaka fish aboard the International Space Station. Advances in Space Biology and Medicine, 9, 201–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Ijiri, K. (1998). Development of space-fertilized eggs and formation of primordial germ cells in the embryos of medaka fish. Advances in Space Research, 21(8–9), 1144–1188.Google Scholar
  42. Jakab, A., Schwartz, E., Kasprian, G., Gruber, G. M., Prayer, D., Schoft, V., & Langs, G. (2014). Fetal functional imaging portrays heterogeneous development of emerging human brain networks. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience online at  https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00852.
  43. Janmaleki, M., et al. (2016). Impact of simulated microgravity on cytoskeleton and viscoelastic properties of endothelial cell. Scientific Reports, 6, 32418.  https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32418.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Jennings, R. T., Murphy, D. M. F., Ware, D. L., et al. (2006). Medical qualification of a commercial spaceflight participant: Not your average astronaut. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 77(5), 475–484.Google Scholar
  45. Jonscher, K. R., et al. (2016). Spaceflight activates lipotoxic pathways in mouse liver. PLOS One, 11(5), e0155282.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0155282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Kapia, A., & Hsueh, A. J. (1997). Regularion of ovarian follicle atresia. Annual Review of Physiology, 1997, 349–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Kirschnick, U., Agricol, H.-J., & Horn, E. R. (2006). Effects of altered gravity on identified peptidergic neurons of the cricket Acheta domesticus. Gravitational and Space Biology Bulletin, 19(2), 135–136.Google Scholar
  48. Lane, H. W., & Feeback, D. L. (2002). History of nutrition in space flight: Overview. Nutrition, 18(10), 797–804.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Latham, K. E., & Schultz, R. M. (2001). Embryonic genome activation. Frontiers of Bioscience, 6, d748–d759. https://www.bioscience.org/2001/v6/d/latham/fulltext.htm.
  50. Leffler, E. M., Bullaughey, K., Matute, D., Meyer, W. K., Segruel, L., Venkat, A., et al. (2012). Revisiting and old riddle: What determines genetic diversity levels within species? PLOS Biology, 10(9), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Loomer, P. M. (2001). The impact of microgravity on bone metabolism in vitro. Critical Reviews in Oral Biology and Medicine, 12(3), 252–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Louis, F., Deroanne, C., Nusgens, B., Vico, L., & Guignandon, A. (2015). RhoGTPases as key players in mammalian cell adaptation to microgravity. Biomedical Research International, 2015, 747693.  https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/747693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Lynch, M. (2010). Rate, molecular spectrum, and consequences of human mutation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(3), 961–968.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Mark, S., Graham, B. I., Donoviel, D. B., et al. (2014). The impact of sex and gender on adaptation to space: Executive summary. Journal of Women’s Heath, 3(11), 941–947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Miao, Y.-L., Kikuchi, K., Sun, Q.-Y., & Schatten, H. (2009). Oocyte aging: Cellular and molecular changes, developmental potential and reversal possibility. Human Reproduction Update, 15(5), 573–585.  https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmp014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Mistry, K. B., et al. (2012). A new framework for childhood health promotion: The role of policies and programs in building capacity and foundations of early childhood health. American Journal of Public Health, 102(9), 1688–1696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Miyake, M., Hazama, A., Nielsen, S., & Shimizu, T. (2004). Effects of microgravity on organ development of the neonatal rat. Biological Sciences in Space, 18, 126–127.Google Scholar
  58. National Academies of Science of the United States of America. (2006). Space radiation hazards and the vision for space exploration. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
  59. National Academies of Science of the United States of America. (2018). A midterm assessment of implementation of the decadal survey on life and physical sciences research at NASA. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
  60. National Academies of Science of the United States. (2013). Reducing maternal and neonatal mortality in Indonesia: Saving lives, saving the future. National Academies Press.Google Scholar
  61. National Institutes of Health. (2019). Preconception care and prenatal care. See https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/preconceptioncare/conditioninfo/health-problems.
  62. Neubert, J. B., et al. (1998). Effects of gravity on early development. Advances in Space Research, 22(2), 265–271.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Nikolaev, A., & Yang, E. S. (2017). The impact of DNA repair pathways in cancer biology and therapy. Cancers, 9(9).  https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers9090126.
  64. Ning, L.-N., Lei, X.-H., Cao, Y.-J., Zhang, Y.-F., Cao, Z.-H., Chen, Q., et al. (2015). Effect of short-term hypergravity treatment on mouse 2-cell embryo development. Microgravity Science and Technology, 27(6), 465–471.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Norbury, J. W., et al. (2016). Galactic cosmic ray simulation at the NASA Space Radiation Laboratory. Life Sciences in Space Research, 8, 38–51.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lssr.2016.02.001.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Ogneva, I. V., Belyakin, S. N., & Sarantesva, S. V. (2016). The development of Drosophila menalogaster under different duration space flight and subsequent adaptations to Earth gravity. PLOS One, 11, e0166885.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166885.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Olson, W. M., Wiens, D. J., Gaul, T. L., Rodriguez, M., & Hauptmeier, C. L. (2010). Xenopus development from late gastrulation of feeding tadpole in simulated microgravity. International Journal of Developmental Biology, 45, 167–174.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Ombelet, W., Menkveld, R., Kruger, T. F., & Steeno, O. (1995). Sperm morphology assessment: Historical review in relation to fertility. Human Reproduction Update, 1(6), 543–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Page 2 of Delaney, L., & Smith, J. P. (2012). Childhood health: Trends and consequences over the life-course. Future Child, 22(2), 43–63.Google Scholar
  70. Pan, D. (2007). Hippo signaling in organ size control. Genes & Development, 21, 886–897.  https://doi.org/10.1101/gad.1536007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Papaseit, C., Pochon, N., & Tabony, J. (2000). Microtubule self-organization is gravity-dependent. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science of the United States of America, 97(15), 8364–8368.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Pellegrini, M., Di Siena, S., Claps, G., Di Cesare, S., Dolci, S., Rossi, P., et al. (2010). Microgravity promotes differentiation and meiotic entry of postnatal mouse male germ cells. PLoS One, 5, e9064.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009064.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Ricci, G., Catizone, A., Esposito, R., & Galdieri, M. (2004). Microgravity effect on testicular functions. Journal of Gravitational Physiology, 11(2), 61–69.Google Scholar
  74. Richard, S., Henggeler, D., Ille, F., Beck, S. V., Moeckli, M., Forster, I. C., et al. (2012). A semi-automated electrophysiology system for recording from Xenopus Oocytes under microgravity conditions. Microgravity Science and Technology, 24(4), 237–244.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Ross, M. D., & Tomko, D. L. (1998). Effect of gravity on vestibular neural development. Brain Research Reviews, 28(1–2), 44–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Russell, W. L., Russell, L. B., & Kelly, E. M. (1960). Dependence of mutation rate on radiation intensity. International Journal of Radiation Biology, 1960(Supplement), 311–320.Google Scholar
  77. Schimmerling, W. (2010). Accepting space radiation risks. Radiation Environments and Biophysics, 49, 325–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. Searby, N. D., Steele, C. R., & Globus, R. K. (2005). Influence of increased mechanical loading by hypergravity on the microtubule cytoskeleton and prostaglandin E2 release in primary osteoblasts. American Journal of Physiology and Cellular Physiology, 289(1), C148–C158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. Serova, L. V. (1989). Effect of weightlessness on the reproductive system of mammals. Kosmicheskaia Biologiia i Aviakosmicheskaia Meditsina, 23(2), 11–16.Google Scholar
  80. Servick, K. (2015, April 27). Gene activation therapy prevents liver damage in mice. Science.  https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab2549.
  81. Shimada, A., et al. (2005). Germ cell mutagenesis in medaka fish after exposures to high-energy cosmic ray nuclei: A human model. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science of the United States of America, 102(17), 6063–6067.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Simonsen, L. C. (2015). Mars mission and space radiation risks: Space radiation research and technologies for risk mitigation briefing to NAC HEO/SMD Joint Committee April 7, 2015. Online at https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20160006861.pdf.
  83. Singh, K., Cubano, L., & Lewis, M. (2010). Effects of gravity perturbation on developing animal systems. Advances in Space Research, 6(12), 29–36.Google Scholar
  84. Smith, C. M. (2011). The fact of evolution. New York: Penguin Random House.Google Scholar
  85. Smith, I. M., & Forsman, A. D. (2012). Ovarian follicular and luteal development in the spaceflight mouse. Gravitational and Space Biology, 26(2), 30–37.Google Scholar
  86. Souza, K. H., Black, S. D., & Wassersug, R. J. (1995). Amphibian development in the virtual absence of gravity. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science of the United States of America, 9, 1975–1978.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Tan, X. (2006). The effects of microgravity on gametogenesis, fertilization, and early embryogenesis. Paper delivered at 36th Committee on Space Research Scientific Assembly. Held 16–23 July 2006, in Beijing, China. Meeting abstract from the CDROM, #3631. Online at http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006cosp.meet.3631T.
  88. Tash, J. S., & Bracho, G. E. (1999). Microgravity alters protein phosphorylation changes during initiation of sea urchin sperm motility. FASEB Journal, 13(9001), 843–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Tash, J. S., Johnson, D. C., & Enders, G. C. (2002). Long-term (6-wk) hindlimb suspension inhibits spermatogenesis in adult male rats. Journal of Applied Physiology, 92(3), 1191–1198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Thibeault, S. A., Kang, J. H., Sauit, G., & Park, C. (2015). Nanomaterials for radiation shielding. Materials Research Society Bulletin: Engineered Nanomaterials in Aerosopace, 40(10), 836–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. Tourmente, M., Gormendio, M., & Foldan, E. R. S. (2011). Sperm competition and the evolution of sperm design in mammals. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 11, 12. Online at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2148/11/12.
  92. US Social Security Administration Actuarial Tables. (2018). Online at https://www.ssa.gov/oact/STATS/table4c6.html.
  93. Vaquer, A.-F., & Hadjantonakis, A.-K. (2013). Birth defects associated with perturbations in pre-implantation, gastrulation and axis extension: From conjoined twinning to caudal dysgenesis. Wiley Interdisciplinary Review of Biology, 2(4), 427–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Vernós, I., González-Jurado, J.-, Calleja, M., & Marco, R. (1989). Microgravity effects on the oogenesis and development of embryos of Drosophila melanogaster laid in the Spaceshuttle during the Biorack experiment (ESA). International Journal of Developmental Biology, 33(2), 213–216.Google Scholar
  95. Villanueva, M. M., Wong, M., Lu, T., Zhang, Y., & Wu, H. (2017). Interplay of space radiation and microgravity in DNA damage and DNA damage response. Microgravity, 3, 14.  https://doi.org/10.1038/s41526-017-0019-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Wakayama, S., et al. (2017). Healthy offspring from freeze-dried mouse spermatozoa held on the International Space Station for 9 months. Proceedings of the National Academies of Science of the United States of America, 114(23), 5988–5993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Wakayama, S., Kwahara, Y., Li, C., Yamagata, K., Yuge, L., & Wakayama, T. (2009). Detrimental effects of microgravity on mouse preimplantation development in vitro. PLoS ONE, 4(8), e6753. Online at pone.0006753 1..10.Google Scholar
  98. Wang, Y., An, L., Jiang, Y., & Hang, H. (2011). Effects of simulated microgravity on embryonic stem cells. PLoS ONE, 6, e29214.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029214.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Woese, C. R. (2004). A new biology for a new century. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 68(2), 173–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. Wohlgemuth, D. J., & Murashov, A. K. (1995). Models and molecular approaches to assessing the effects of the microgravity environment and vertebrate development. American Society for Gravitational and Space Biology Bulletin, 8(2), 63–71.Google Scholar
  101. Wolpert, L. (2008). Triumph of the embryo. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications.Google Scholar
  102. Woodbury, R. A., Hamilton, W. F., & Torpin, R. (1938). The relationship between abdominal, uterine and arterial pressures during labor. American Journal of Physiology, 121(3), 640–649.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. World Health Organization. (2006). Promoting optimal fetal development: Report of a technical consultation. Available at https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/fetomaternal/9241594004/en/.
  105. Wu, C., Guo, X., Wang, F., Li, X., Tian, C., Li, L., et al. (2011). Simulated microgravity compromises mouse oocyte maturation by disrupting meiotic spindle organization and inducing cytoplasmic blebbing. PLoS ONE, 6(7), e22214.  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022214.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. Xie, Y., Wang, F., Zhong, W., Puscheck, E., Shen, H., & Rapollee, D. A. (2006). Shear stress induces preimplantation embryo death that is delayed by the zona pellucida and associated with stress-activated protein kinase-mediated apoptosis. Biology of Reproduction, 75(1), 45–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. Yamauchi, Y., Riel, J. M., Ruthig, V. A., Ortega, E. A., Mitchell, M. J., & Ward, M. A. (2016). Two genes substitute for the mouse Y chromosome for spermatogenesis and reproduction. Science, 351(6272), 514–516.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. Yatagai, F., & Ishioka, N. (2014). Are biological effects of space radiation really altered under the microgravity environment? Life Sciences in Space Research, 3, 76–89.ADSCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of AnthropologyPortland State UniversityPortlandUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options