Abstract
This chapter deals with an analysis of Swaziland’s 1968 Westminster Constitution. Neither the African international environment, with its prevailing one-party system, nor the nonchalance of the government with multipartyism favoured the survival of the Independence Constitution. The 1972 general elections compounded matters, as they led to the emergence of the Ngwane National Liberatory Congress (NNLC) as Opposition to the royal Imbokodvo National Movement (INM) government, which had hitherto operated as a de facto one-party state. Attempts at undermining the Opposition in Parliament led to legal wrangling that culminated in the successive defeat of the government in the courts. This chapter highlights the operation of multipartyism in independence Swaziland, and the exercise of the autonomy of the judiciary in a constitutional monarchical system that hurt the traditionalists to the core.
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Notes
- 1.
Constitutionalism requires the division of power between the executive, legislature, and judiciary and between the central and local government. See, for instance, M. Brattan, ‘Formal Versus Informal Institutions in Africa’, In L. Diamond and M. F. Platter (eds.), Democratisation in Africa: Progress and Retreat (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2010); C. M. Fombad, ‘The Swaziland Constitution of 2005: Can Absolutism Be Reconciled with Modern Constitutionalism?’, South African Journal on Human Rights, 93, 1 (2007), 93–115; M. Sinjenga, ‘Constitutionalism in Africa: Emerging Trends: The Evolving African Constitutionalism’, The Review-International Commission of Jurist, 60 (1998), 23–28; and T. Lumumba-Kasongo, Liberal Democracy and Its Critics in Africa: Political Dysfunction and the Struggle of Social Progress (London: Radical International Publishing, Zed Books, 2005).
- 2.
V. Bogdanor, The Monarchy and the Constitution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 1; Wanda, ‘The Shaping of the Modern Constitution of Swaziland: A Review of Some Social and Historical Factors’, Lesotho Law Journal: A Journal of Law and Developments, 6, 1 (1990), 137–198; Examples of contemporary Constitutional monarchies include Cambodia, Denmark, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait, Lesotho, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
- 3.
See, for instance, M. Brattan, ‘Formal Versus Informal Institutions in Africa’, In L. Diamond and M. F. Platter (eds.), Democratisation in Africa: Progress and Retreat (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2010); C. M. Fombad, ‘The Swaziland Constitution of 2005: Can Absolutism Be Reconciled with Modern Constitutionalism?’, South African Journal on Human Rights, 93, 1 (2007), 93–115; M. Sinjenga, ‘Constitutionalism in Africa: Emerging Trends: The Evolving African Constitutionalism’, The Review-International Commission of Jurist, 60 (1998), 23–28; and T. Lumumba-Kasongo, Liberal Democracy and Its Critics in Africa: Political Dysfunction and the Struggle of Social Progress (London: Radical International Publishing, Zed Books, 2005).
- 4.
Bogdanor, The Monarchy and the Constitution, 1.
- 5.
Paul W. Fox, ‘Louis XIV and the Theories of Absolutism and Divine Right’, Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science/Revue canadienne de economiques et science politique, 26, 1 (1960), 128–142.
- 6.
SNA, The 1968 Independence Constitution.
- 7.
Baloro, ‘The Development of Swaziland’s Constitution’, 19–34.
- 8.
Ibid.
- 9.
Succession to the British monarchy is regulated by Parliament. The next heir to the British throne is Prince Charles, Prince of Wales. It is therefore a public secret. This is not the case with the Swazi monarchical system, where the next heir is a guarded secret and is known only by a select few insiders.
- 10.
This is unlike the case in the United Kingdom where succession to the throne is regulated not only through descent, but also by Parliamentary statute (see A. Olechnowicz, ‘The Monarchy’, In D. Brown, G. Pentland, and R. Crowcroft [eds.], The Oxford Handbook of Modern British Political History, 1800–2000 [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018], 205).
- 11.
J. H. Proctor, ‘Traditionalism and Parliamentary Government in Swaziland’, African Affairs, 72, 288 (1973), 274.
- 12.
SNA, The 1968 Independence Constitution.
- 13.
Baloro, ‘The Development of Swaziland’s Constitution’, 23. For a similar viewpoint, see Wanda, ‘The Shaping of the Modern Constitution of Swaziland’, 178.
- 14.
Wanda, ‘The Shaping of the Modern Constitution of Swaziland’, 178.
- 15.
Praise singers/griots are not only found in Swaziland; they are representative of Africa. They make rich use of genealogy and history in performances on post-independence leaders including Senghor and Mandela (see P. Tang, Masters of the Sabar: Wolof griot percussionists of Senegal [Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007]; T. A. Hale, Griots and Griottes: Masters of Words and Music [African Expressive Cultures] [Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007]; and R. H. Kaschula and D. Samba, ‘Political Processes and the Role of the Imbongi and Griot in Africa’, South African Journal of African languages, 20, 1 [2000], 13–28).
- 16.
P. A. Dlamini, ‘The Teaching of Oral Literature in Swazi Secondary Schools: A Critique’ (MA diss., University of Cape Town, 2000, 58).
- 17.
Vail, Leroy and L. White, Power and the Praise Poem: Southern African Voices in History (London: James Currey Publishers, 1991).
- 18.
‘Dr Zwane Fined’, Times of Swaziland, May 5, 1972; ‘Dr Zwane in Court’, Times of Swaziland, April 28, 1972.
- 19.
The traditionalism of the Swazi monarchy has made a number of writers to question whether it is feasible for a typical traditional monarchy to imbibe constitutionalism (see, for instance, Fombad, ‘The Swaziland Constitution of 2005: Can Absolutism Be Reconciled with Modern Constitutionalism?’; C. M. Fombad, ‘Challenges to Constitutionalism and Constitutional Rights in Africa and the Enabling Role of Political Parties: Lessons and Perspectives from Southern Africa’, The American Journal of Comparative Law (2007), 1–45; and J. B. Mzizi ‘The Dominance of the Swazi Monarchy and the Moral Dynamics of Democratisation of the Swazi state’, Journal of African Elections, 3, 1 (2004), 94–119.
- 20.
H. W. O. Okoth-Ogendo, ‘The Politics of Constitutional Change in Kenya Since Independence, 1963–69’, African Affairs, 71, 282 (1972), 9–34.
- 21.
Commonwealth African states in the 1960s which established de jure one-party states include Ghana (1964–1966), Tanzania (1965), Malawi (1966). In the early 1970s, Lesotho, Zambia (1972), Sierra Leone (1978) followed suit. The first four states rejected the incorporation of a bill of rights as a substantive part of their single-party constitutions (see P. T. Omari and N. A. Ollennu, Kwame Nkrumah: The Anatomy of an African Dictatorship [London: Africana Publishing Corporation, 1970]; M. L. Kilson, ‘Authoritarian and Single-Party Tendencies in African Politics’, World Politics, 15, 2 [1963], 262–294; R. H. Jackson and C. G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982]; and K. Nkrumah, R. Arrigoni, and G. Napolitano, Africa Must Unite [London: Heinemann, 1963]).
- 22.
G. M. Carbone, ‘Political Parties and Party Systems in Africa: Themes and Research Perspectives’, World Political Science Review, 13, 3 (2007), 1; S. Mozaffar and A. Schedler, ‘A Comparative Study of Electoral Governance: Introduction’, Party Politics, 11, 4 (2005), 395.
- 23.
H. W. O. Okoth-Ogendo, ‘The Politics of Constitutional Change in Kenya Since Independence, 1963–69’, African Affairs, 71, 282 (1972), 9–34; R. Schachter, ‘Single-Party Systems in West Africa’, American Political Science Review, 55, 2 (1961), 294–307; and N. Van de Walle, ‘Presidentialism and Clientelism in Africa’s Emerging Party Systems’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 2 (2003), 297–321.
- 24.
A. Mohiddin, ‘Ujamaa: A Commentary on President Nyerere’s Vision of Tanzanian Society’, African Affairs, 67, 267 (1968), 130–143.
- 25.
King Sobhuza II had clearly distanced himself from liberal democratic practices in the 1960s but the British made it part of the Independence Constitution.
- 26.
The three British High Commission territories comprising Basutoland (Lesotho), Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Swaziland started a joint University in 1964 known as the University of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland (UBBS) owing to South Africa’s apartheid policy. Lesotho withdrew from UBLS in 1981 to form the National University of Lesotho (NUL). Swaziland and Botswana were on their own and decided to form the University of Botswana and Swaziland (UBS). The UBLS later dissolved, leading to the birth of an autonomous University of Swaziland (UNISWA) in 1982. Developments in Lesotho were, therefore, closely followed in Swaziland owing to their common history and institutions of learning they shared.
- 27.
K. Matlosa, ‘Democracy and Conflict in Post-apartheid Southern Africa: Dilemmas of Social Change in Small States’, International Affairs, 74, 2 (1998), 330; V. Shale, ‘Political Party Funding and Regulation in Lesotho and Mozambique’, In J. Mendolow and E. Phelippeau (eds.), Handbook of Political Party Funding (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2018).
- 28.
H. Kuper, Sobhuza II, Ngwenyama and King of Swaziland: The Story of an Hereditary Ruler and His Country (New York: Africana Publishing, 1978), 290.
- 29.
Kuper, Sobhuza II: Ngwenyama and King of Swaziland, 318–335.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
Ibid.
- 32.
‘May Elections’, Times of Swaziland, March 17, 1972.
- 33.
‘Pledge’, Times of Swaziland, April 14, 1972.
- 34.
Ibid.
- 35.
‘Dr A.P. Zwane’s Historic Document’, Times of Swaziland, May 12, 1972.
- 36.
‘Imbokodvo Candidate’, Times of Swaziland, March 31, 1972.
- 37.
‘Boycott at Parliament’, Times of Swaziland, October 20, 1972.
- 38.
Ibid.
- 39.
M. Neocosmos, ‘The Politics of National Elections in Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland: Towards a Comparative Analysis’, In M. Cowen and L. Laakso (eds.), Multiparty Elections in Africa (Oxford: James Currey, 2002).
- 40.
Motloso, ‘Democracy and Conflict in Post-apartheid Southern Africa’, International Affairs, 74, 2 (1998), 319–337; also see R. Levin, ‘Swaziland’s Tinkhundla and the Myth of Swazi Traditional’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 10, 2 (1991), 1–23.
- 41.
See H. S. Zwane, ‘Constitutional Discontinuity and Legitimacy: A Comparative Study with Special Reference to the 1973 Constitutional Crisis in Swaziland’ (A Dissertation for a Master Degree in Law, University of Edinburg, 1988); B. Khumalo, ‘The Politics of Constitution-Making and Constitutional Pluralism in Swaziland Since 1973’, UNISWA Research Journal, 10 (1996), 1–19; and T. Maseko, ‘The Drafting of the Constitution of Swaziland’, 1–22.
- 42.
Maseko, ‘The Drafting of the Constitution of Swaziland’, 31.
- 43.
Ibid.
- 44.
Interview with anonymous political activist and scholar in Swaziland.
- 45.
It was issued in terms of Section 9(1) (g) of the Immigration Act 32 of 1964, published under Government Gazette 45 of 1972.
- 46.
Soggott was not new to the politics of Swaziland and had represented Dr, Zwane and the other NNLC leaders during the trials connected with the 1963 workers’ and Mbabane residents’ strikes (Kuper, Sobhuza II: Ngwenyama and King of Swaziland, 334).
- 47.
‘Declared Prohibited Immigrant’, Times of Swaziland, June 2, 1972.
- 48.
Bhekindlela Thomas Ngwenya v The Deputy Prime Minister 1970–76 Swaziland Law Report (HC) 88.
- 49.
‘Deportation Appeal’, Times of Swaziland, July 28, 1972.
- 50.
‘A Boycott at Parliament’, Times of Swaziland, October 20, 1972.
- 51.
‘A Boycott at Parliament’, Times of Swaziland, October 20, 1972.
- 52.
‘A Boycott at Parliament’, Times of Swaziland, October 20, 1972.
- 53.
See R. H. Fallon Jr., and D. J. Meltzer, ‘New Law, Non-retroactivity, and Constitutional Remedies’, Harvard Law Review (1991), 1731–1833; and S. J. Hammer, ‘Retroactivity and Restraint: An Anglo-American Comparison’, Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy, 41, 1 (2018), 409.
- 54.
http://saklawph.com/retroactivity/, Rule on Retroactivity of Laws—SAKLAW (Accessed September 8, 2018); R. H. Fallon, Jr. and D. J. Meltzer, ‘New Law, Non-retroactivity, and Constitutional Remedies’, Harvard Law Review (1991), 1731–1833; and Hammer. ‘Retroactivity and Restraint: An Anglo-American Comparison’, 409.
- 55.
Ibid.
- 56.
‘Immigration Bill Gazetted’, Times of Swaziland, November 10, 1972.
- 57.
SNA, House of Assembly Hansard, November 1972, 270.
- 58.
SNA, House of Assembly Hansard, November 1972, 271.
- 59.
Ibid.
- 60.
Ibid.
- 61.
SNA, House of Assembly Hansard, November 1772, 274.
- 62.
Ibid., 277.
- 63.
SNA, House of Assembly Hansard, November 1972, 276.
- 64.
Ibid., 278.
- 65.
Ibid. The issue was not about limiting non-Swazis in the judiciary because a significant and high profile number of Commonwealth legal luminaries continued to serve in the Swazi judiciary in beyond the 2000s. Michael Mathealira Ramodibedi from Lesotho, for instance, was Chief Justice in Swaziland from 2010 until 2015 when he was fired by King Mswati III for alleged misconduct.
- 66.
SNA, House of Senate Hansard, November 1972, 148. Lobola is bride wealth tradition among Swazis while khonta’ing represents a token of a cow given to a Chief to obtain a piece of land for occupation and cultivation.
- 67.
‘Five Man Tribunal’, Times of Swaziland, November 17, 1972.
- 68.
Interview with anonymous Swazi legal experts November 10, 2015.
- 69.
He was the lawyer who stood for those who took the government of Swaziland to court over the illegality of the abrogation of the 1968 constitution.
- 70.
Bhekindlela Thomas Ngwenya v The Deputy Prime Minister 1970–76 Swaziland Law Report (HC) 88.
- 71.
‘Tribunal Meets’, Times of Swaziland, December 8, 1972.
- 72.
Baloro, ‘The Development of Swaziland’s Constitution: Monarchical Reponses to Modern Challenges’, 24–25.
- 73.
‘Tribunal Meets’, Times of Swaziland, December 8, 1972.
- 74.
Maseko, ‘The Drafting of the Constitution of Swaziland, 2005’, 320.
- 75.
Ibid., 321.
- 76.
Bhekindlela Thomas Ngwenya v The Deputy Prime Minister and the Chief Immigration Officer 1970–76, Swaziland Law Report (Court of Appeal), 123–126.
- 77.
It was a common practice in Swaziland to draw its Court of Appeal judges from South Africa to come occasionally to the country to conduct court sessions and return to South Africa. Swaziland did not have resident judges of the Court of Appeal and had to rely on South Africa. (Interview with anonymous legal authorities in Swaziland between November 1 and 16, 2015.)
- 78.
Bhekindlela Thomas Ngwenya v The Deputy Prime Minister and the Chief Immigration Officer 1970–76, SLR (Court of Appeal), 123–126.
- 79.
Baloro, ‘The Development of Swaziland’s Constitution’, 25.
- 80.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Assembly, First Meeting (Vol. II) of the first Session of April 12, 1973.
- 81.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Assembly, First Meeting (Vol. II) of the first Session of April 12, 1973.
- 82.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Assembly, First Meeting (Vol. II) of the first Session of April 12, 1973.
- 83.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Assembly, First Meeting (Vol. II) of the first Session of April 12, 1973.
- 84.
Maseko, ‘The Drafting of the Constitution of Swaziland, 2005’, 320. It is important to underscore this point because most pro-government interviewees give the impression that the opposition also voted in favour of the government motion and went as far as expressing their joy by dancing on the floor.
- 85.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the House of Assembly, First Meeting (Vol. II) of the first Session of April 12, 1973.
- 86.
SNA, Official Report of the Debates of the Senate First Meeting (Vol. II) of the First Session, April 12, 1973.
- 87.
Ibid.
- 88.
See Appendix A: His Majesty’s Speech during Repeal of the Westminster Constitution at Lobamba, April 12, 1973.
- 89.
R. H. Jackson, R. H. Jackson, and C. G. Rosberg, Personal Rule in Black Africa: Prince, Autocrat, Prophet, Tyrant (London: University of California Press, 1982); K. Kalu, ‘Africa’s “Big Men” and the African State’, 36–50, In K. Kalu, O. Yacob-Haliso, and T. Falola (eds.), Africa’s Big Men (New York: Routledge, 2018).
- 90.
N. Van de Walle, ‘Presidentialism and Clientelism in Africa’s Emerging Party Systems’, The Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 2 (2003), 297–321; O. Van Cranenburgh, “Big Men” Rule: Presidential Power, Regime Type and Democracy in 30 African Countries’, Democratization, 15, 5 (2008), 952–973; and G. K. Kieh, Jr., ‘The “Hegemonic Presidency” in African Politics’, African Social Science Review, 9, 1 (2018), 5.
References
Oral Interviews
Interview with anonymous political activist and scholar in Swaziland.
Interview with anonymous Swazi legal experts November 10, 2015.
Interview with anonymous legal authorities in Swaziland between November 1 and 16, 2015.
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Swaziland National Archives
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Internet Source
http://saklawph.com/retroactivity/, Rule on Retroactivity of Laws—SAKLAW (Accessed September 8, 2018).
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Dlamini, H.P. (2019). The 1968 Westminster Constitution, the 1972 General Election, and Serious Challenges Confronting Constitutional Monarchism. In: A Constitutional History of the Kingdom of Eswatini (Swaziland), 1960–1982. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24777-5_6
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