Abstract
The global energy market is still monopolized to a great extent by the production, trade and consumption of oil and gas. The EU is no exception to this rule with a high import ratio of both oil and gas. Unreliable oil producers, geopolitical instability in many oil-rich countries, economic and resource nationalism—which are a threat to sustainable development—transportation-related hazards, and the high volatility of international oil prices are constraining importers to face significant risks.
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Notes
- 1.
The International Energy Agency (2016), p. 5.
- 2.
Yergin (2011).
- 3.
Eurostat, “Main origin of primary energy imports, EU-28, 2005–2015 (% of extra EU-28 imports),” Eurostat, [Online]. Available: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/File:Main_origin_of_primary_energy_imports,_EU-28,_2005-2015_%28%25_of_extra_EU-28_imports%29_YB17.png.
- 4.
Proedrou (2012).
- 5.
The Southern Gas Corridor is a term used to describe planned infrastructure projects aimed at improving EU energy security by bringing natural gas from the Caspian region to Europe. See Trans Adriatic Pipeline, “Southern Gas Corridor,” Trans Adriatic Pipeline, 2017. [Online]. Available: https://www.tap-ag.com/the-pipeline/the-big-picture/southern-gas-corridor. The Southern Gas Corridor is also known as the Fourth Corridor (the other three corridors running from North Africa, Norway and Russia). See Leal-Arcas et al. (2015a), p. 19.
- 6.
Sidi (2017), pp. 51–66.
- 7.
Proedrou (2016), pp. 57–73.
- 8.
The EU’s Third Energy Package is a legislative package for an internal gas and electricity market with the purpose of further opening up these markets in the European Union. It consists of two directives and three regulations: Directive 2009/72/EC, concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity; Directive 2009/73/EC, concerning common rules for the internal market in natural gas; Regulation (EC) No 714/2009, on conditions for access to the network for cross-border exchanges in electricity; Regulation (EC) No 715/2009, on conditions for access to the natural gas transmission networks; and Regulation (EC) No 713/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 July 2009 establishing an Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators.
- 9.
- 10.
It is interesting to note that, as of 2013, 90 companies caused two-thirds of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. See Goldenberg, S. “Just 90 companies cause two-thirds of man-made global warming emissions,” The Guardian, 20 November 2013, available at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/nov/20/90-companies-man-made-global-warming-emissions-climate-change.
- 11.
Aissaoui et al. (1999).
- 12.
Casier (2016), pp. 763–778.
- 13.
EU Directorate-General for Internal Policies, “Decentralized Energy Systems,” 2010, available at: www.europarl.europa.eu/document/activities/cont/201106/20110629ATT22897/20110629ATT22897EN.pdf.
- 14.
European Commission, “2020 Energy Strategy,” available at https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/energy-strategy-and-energy-union/2020-energy-strategy.
- 15.
About WiseGRID, WiseGRID, http://www.wisegrid.eu/ [https://perma.cc/CGM8-F2WK].
- 16.
Idem.
- 17.
Understanding Electricity Markets in the EU, European Parliament (Nov. 2016), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/593519/EPRS_BRI%282016%29593519_EN.pdf.
- 18.
A Transmission System Operator (TSO) can be defined as a natural or legal person responsible for operating, ensuring the maintenance of and, if necessary, developing the transmission system in a given area and, where applicable, its interconnections with other systems, and for ensuring the long-term ability of the system to meet reasonable demands for the transmission of electricity. See Parliament and Council Directive 2009/73/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Natural Gas, art. 2(4), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 94, and Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, art. 2(4), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 19.
A Distribution System Operator (DSO) can be defined as a natural or legal person responsible for operating, ensuring the maintenance of and, if necessary, developing the distribution system in a given area and, where applicable, its interconnections with other systems and for ensuring the long-term ability of the system to meet reasonable demands for the distribution of electricity or gas. See Parliament and Council Directive 2009/73/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Natural Gas, art. 2(6), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 94, and Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, art. 2(6), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 20.
Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, p. 68, COM (2016) 864 final (Feb. 23, 2017).
- 21.
See id.
- 22.
Commission Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Internal Market for Electricity, COM (2016) 861 final (Nov. 30, 2016).
- 23.
See id.
- 24.
A top-down approach to a problem is a situation that begins at the highest conceptual level and works down to the details. An example of such an approach would be where targets are set out at the international level and must be attained through national policies and measures. A bottom-up approach to a problem is one that begins with details and works up to the highest conceptual level. An example of such an approach would be where action starts at the national level based on each country’s circumstances through a patchwork of national policies and measures (which are not necessarily binding) until they develop into unified policies at the international plane.
- 25.
These environmental targets aim to (1) reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 20%; (2) reach 20% of renewable energy in the total energy consumption in the EU; and (3) increase energy efficiency to save 20% of EU energy consumption, all by 2020. See 2020 Climate and Energy Package, European Comm’n (Sept. 9, 2017), https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/2020_en.
- 26.
Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, El 62% de los Contadores Analógicos ya han sido Sustituidos por Contadores Inteligentes, Nota de Prensa 1 (2017).
- 27.
Commission Report on Benchmarking Smart Metering Deployment in the EU-27 with a Focus on Electricity, p. 4, COM (2014) 356 final (June 17, 2014).
- 28.
Cherrelle Eid, Rudi Hakvoort & Martin de Jong, Global Trends in the Political Economy of Smart Grids: A Tailored Perspective on ‘Smart’ for Grids in Transition, 1–19, p. 10 (United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research Working Paper 2016/22, 2016).
- 29.
Ownership unbundling is the “process by which a large company with several different lines of business retains one or more core businesses and sells off the remaining assets, product/service lines, divisions or subsidiaries. Unbundling is done for a variety of reasons, but the goal is always to create a better performing company or companies.” See Unbundling, Investopedia, http://www.investopedia.com/terms/u/unbundling.asp.
- 30.
Understanding Electricity Markets in the EU, European Parliament (Nov. 2016), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/593519/EPRS_BRI%282016%29593519_EN.pdf.
- 31.
Id. at 9.
- 32.
Donoso (2015), p. 37.
- 33.
EDSO, European Distributed System Operator for Smart Grids (2014).
- 34.
Clastres (2011), p. 5399.
- 35.
See id.
- 36.
Balance Responsible Party (BRP) can be defined as a market participant or its chosen representative responsible for its imbalances in the electricity market. See Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Internal Market for Electricity, p. 38, COM (2016) 861 final (Nov. 30, 2016).
- 37.
For further details on prosumers, see Leal-Arcas et al. (2017), p. 139.
- 38.
These producers will be able to store in batteries the electricity they generate, instead of selling it back to utilities. Doing so will encourage more customers to invest in batteries.
- 39.
Boscan and Poudineh (2016), p. 2.
- 40.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources, COM (2016) 767 final (Feb. 23, 2017).
- 41.
Cherrelle Eid, Rudi Hakvoort & Martin de Jong, Global Trends in the Political Economy of Smart Grids: A Tailored Perspective on ‘Smart’ for Grids in Transition, 1–19, p. 3 (United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research Working Paper 2016/22, 2016).
- 42.
Zachary Shahan , Tesla CTO JB Straubel On Why EVs Selling Electricity To The Grid Is Not As Swell As It Sounds, Clean Technica (Aug. 22, 2016), https://cleantechnica.com/2016/08/22/vehicle-to-grid-used-ev-batteries-grid-storage/.
- 43.
The International Energy Agency (2016).
- 44.
European Parliament, Electricity “Prosumers” (Nov. 2016), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2016/593518/EPRS_BRI%282016%29593518_EN.pdf.
- 45.
See Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, COM (2016) 864 final (Feb. 23, 2017). The proposal defines the concept of local energy community as “an association, a cooperative, a partnership, a non-profit organisation or other legal entity which is effectively controlled by local shareholders or members, generally value rather than profit-driven, involved in distributed generation and in performing activities of a distribution system operator, supplier or aggregator at local level, including across borders.” Id. at 52.
- 46.
Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Promotion of the Use of Energy from Renewable Sources, COM (2016) 767 final (Feb. 23, 2017).
- 47.
See id.
- 48.
Rodríguez-Molina et al. (2014), pp. 6142–6171.
- 49.
Boscan and Poudineh (2016), p. 10.
- 50.
See id.
- 51.
Varaiya et al. (2010), pp. 40–57.
- 52.
See id.
- 53.
Boscan and Poudineh (2016), p. 10.
- 54.
See id.
- 55.
Varaiya et al. (2010), p. 40.
- 56.
Boscan and Poudineh (2016), p. 10.
- 57.
International Energy Agency (2016).
- 58.
See id.
- 59.
Boscan and Poudineh (2016), p. 10.
- 60.
See id.; Buchan and Keay (2016).
- 61.
First Energy Package, electricity (1996) and gas (1998); Second Energy Package 2003, and Third Energy Package (2009). See http://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/45/internal-energy-market.
- 62.
International Energy Agency (2016).
- 63.
Idem.
- 64.
Elia Group, “Legal Framework,” Elia Group, [Online]. Available: http://www.elia.be/en/aboutelia/legal-framework.
- 65.
European Environment Agency (2014).
- 66.
International Energy Agency (2016).
- 67.
Balaguer-Coll (2010), pp. 571–601.
- 68.
European Committee of the Regions, “Division of Powers,” European Committee of the Regions, 2012. Available at: https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/countries/MembersLP/Spain/Pages/default.aspx.
- 69.
Article 149, paragraph 1, point 22 Spanish Constitution.
- 70.
Article 149, paragraph 1, point 25 Spanish Constitution.
- 71.
Article 149, paragraph 1, point 13 Spanish Constitution.
- 72.
Article 149, paragraph 1, point 23 Spanish Constitution.
- 73.
Navarro Rodríguez (2012).
- 74.
Article 5.3 of the Treaty on European Union (TEU).
- 75.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2016).
- 76.
Anagnostopoulos and Papantonis (2013).
- 77.
ΛΑΓΗΕ Operator of the electricity market, “www.lagie.gr / DAS monthly report December 2016.”
- 78.
Brunekreeft et al. (2015), pp. 45–78.
- 79.
Heal, Bridget, “The Nature of German Environmental History,” German History, 1 January 2009, 113–130.
- 80.
International Energy Agency, Energy Policies of IEA Countries, 2013 Review.
- 81.
Ibid.
- 82.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 83.
Appunn, Kerstine, “Energiewende hinges on unblocking the power grid,” Clean Energy Wire, 2018.
- 84.
Netz Entwicklungs Plan Strom, Energy Networks, available at www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/en/background/energy-networks.
- 85.
Federal Government, Energy Concept, available at cleanenergyaction.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/german-federal-governments-energy-concept1.pdf.
- 86.
International Energy Agency, Energy Policies of IEA Countries, 2013 Review.
- 87.
Ibid.
- 88.
International Energy Agency, Energy Policies of IEA Countries, 2013 Review.
- 89.
Clean Energy Wire, “German utilities and the Energiewende,” available at www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/german-utilities-and-energiewende.
- 90.
Ibid.
- 91.
Bundesnetzagentur, “Regulatory challenges of Germany’s ‘Energiewende,’” available at www.renewable-ei.org/images/pdf/20160309/NadiaHorstmann_REvision2016.pdf.
- 92.
Ante, Ulrich Scholz and Johann, “Electricity regulation in Germany: overview,” available at uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/5-524-0808?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true&comp=pluk&bhcp=1.
- 93.
International Energy Agency (2015).
- 94.
Leal-Arcas et al. (2015a).
- 95.
International Energy Agency (2015).
- 96.
Rojas and Carreño (2014).
- 97.
International Energy Agency, “Electricity sector regulation (Electricity Law 24/2013),” International Energy Agency, 2 May 2017. Available at: https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/spain/name-130502-en.php.
- 98.
Cuatrecasas, “Legal Update I Energy. Act 24/2013, of December 26, on the electricity sector,” January 2014. Available at: http://www.cuatrecasas.com/media_repository/gabinete/publicaciones/docs/1388678102en.pdf.
- 99.
Nachmany (2015).
- 100.
The Mediterranean Energy Regulators (2016).
- 101.
Leal-Arcas et al. (2015a).
- 102.
International Energy Agency, “Electricity sector regulation (Electricity Law 24/2013),” International Energy Agency, 2 May 2017. Available at: https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/spain/name-130502-en.php.
- 103.
Cuatrecasas, “Legal Update I Energy. Act 24/2013, of December 26, on the electricity sector,” January 2014. Available at: http://www.cuatrecasas.com/media_repository/gabinete/publicaciones/docs/1388678102en.pdf.
- 104.
Rojas and Carreño (2014).
- 105.
Articles 19–21 Royal Decree 900/2015.
- 106.
Article 4 Royal Decree 900/2015.
- 107.
International Energy Agency, “Royal Decree 900/2015 on self-consumption,” International Energy Agency, 10 May 2017. Available at: https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/pams/spain/name-152980-en.php.
- 108.
López Prol and Steininger (2017).
- 109.
Article 5, paragraph 1, point c) Royal Decree 900/2015.
- 110.
Articles 17 and 18, respectively, Royal Decree 900/2015.
- 111.
I. Tsagas, “Spain Approves ‘Sun Tax,’ Discriminates Against Solar PV,” Renewable Energy World, 23 October 2015. Available at: https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/10/spain-approves-sun-tax-discriminates-against-solar-pv.html.
- 112.
I. Tsagas, “Spain Approves ‘Sun Tax,’ Discriminates Against Solar PV,” Renewable Energy World, 23 October 2015. Available at: https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2015/10/spain-approves-sun-tax-discriminates-against-solar-pv.html.
- 113.
Commission Staff Working Document. Best practices on Renewable Energy Self-consumption, p. 3, COM(2015) 33 final (15 July 2015).
- 114.
Donoso (2015).
- 115.
International Energy Agency (2015).
- 116.
Ibid.
- 117.
Roberts and Skillings (2015).
- 118.
International Energy Agency (2015).
- 119.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2016).
- 120.
N. Rossetto, “An oversized electricity system for Italy,” Italian Institute for International Political Studies, 22 January 2015. Available at: https://www.ispionline.it/it/energy-watch/oversized-electricity-system-italy-12135.
- 121.
Bersani Decree, Legislative Decree No. 79, 1999.
- 122.
International Energy Agency (IEA) (2016).
- 123.
M. Cicchetti and G. Fabbricatore, “Electricity Regulation in Italy: Overview,” Practical Law Company, 1 May 2014. Available at: https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/Document/Ieb49d7bb1cb511e38578f7ccc38dcbee/View/FullText.html?originationContext=docHeader&contextData=(sc.Defadult)&transitionType=Document&needToInjectTerms=False&firstPage=true&bhcp=1.
- 124.
Energy Industry Act, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/enwg_2005/EnWG.pdf.
- 125.
Bundesnetzagentur, Annual Report 2016.
- 126.
Grid Development Plan 2030, available at: www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/en/front.
- 127.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 128.
Grid Development Plan 2030, available at: www.netzentwicklungsplan.de/en/front.
- 129.
Ibid.
- 130.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 131.
Judgment in Case T-47/15, 2016.
- 132.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 133.
Ibid.
- 134.
Clean Energy Wire, “Germany’s energy transition revamp stirs controversy over speed, participation,” available at: www.cleanenergywire.org/dossiers/reform-renewable-energy-act#controversial.
- 135.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 136.
Ibid.
- 137.
German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, Electricity Market 2.0, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Energy/strommarkt-2-0.html.
- 138.
UNFCCC, Text of the Paris Agreement 2015, available at: unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf.
- 139.
Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit (BMUB), Klimaschutzplan 2050, available at: www.bmu.de/fileadmin/Daten_BMU/Download_PDF/Klimaschutz/klimaschutzplan_2050_bf.pdf.
- 140.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi), National Action Plan on Energy Efficiency 2014, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Publikationen/nape-national-action-plan-on-energy-efficiency.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1.
- 141.
Energy Industry Act, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/enwg_2005/EnWG.pdf.
- 142.
Joskow et al. (2008), pp. 9–42.
- 143.
Duso and Szücs (2017), pp. 354–372.
- 144.
Energy Industry Act 2018, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/enwg_2005/EnWG.pdf.
- 145.
Consentec GmbH, System Adequacy for Germany and its Neighbouring Countries, 2015.
- 146.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, Security of Supply, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Energy/security-of-supply.html.
- 147.
The European Parliament and Of the Council, Regulation (EU) No 347/2013.
- 148.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, Competition and Regulation, available at: www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Textsammlungen/Energy/wettbewerb-energiebereich.html?cms_artId=255904.
- 149.
Argus, “Germany-Austria power zone split special report,” available at: www.argusmedia.com/-/media/Files/white-papers/germany-austria-zone-split-white-paper.ashx.
- 150.
Energy Live News, “Power interconnector between Germany and Netherlands goes live,” available at: www.energylivenews.com/2018/08/25/power-interconnector-between-germany-and-netherlands-goes-live.
- 151.
See Verkade and Hoeffken (2018), pp. 799–805.
- 152.
Ministry of Economic Affairs of The Netherlands, “Energy Agenda: Towards a low-carbon energy supply,” 2017.
- 153.
Ibid. p. 21.
- 154.
- 155.
- 156.
- 157.
- 158.
Art. 23, para. 1 of the E-Act.
- 159.
Art. 16 para. 1(c) of the E-Act.
- 160.
- 161.
- 162.
Article 10b of the E-Act.
- 163.
Edens and Lavrijssen (2019), pp. 57–65.
- 164.
Idem.
- 165.
Idem.
- 166.
- 167.
Art. 59 and 64(1), in conjunction with Art. 50(4)–(5) WBM.
- 168.
Art. 3.42 (3) Wet IB 2001.
- 169.
Regulation Green Projects 2016 (RGP 2016).
- 170.
Art 16.1(a) and (d), RGP 2016.
- 171.
- 172.
Art. 7, RGP 2016.
- 173.
- 174.
- 175.
- 176.
- 177.
- 178.
- 179.
Leal-Arcas et al. (2017), pp. 139–172.
- 180.
See for instance the development at the sub-national level in the US, where cities and states, via their mayors and governors, are determined to implement the Paris Agreement on Climate Change, despite the decision of the federal government to withdraw from it. See David Lumb, 61 US Cities and Three States Vow to Uphold Paris Climate Agreement, Engadget (June 1, 2017), https://www.engadget.com/2017/06/01/61-us-cities-and-three-states-vow-to-uphold-paris-climate-agreem/. See also an open letter to the international community and parties to the Paris Agreement from US state, local and business leaders by a bottom-up American network called We Are Still In, at http://wearestillin.com/. Similarly, see the role of the United States Alliance at United States Climate Alliance, https://www.usclimatealliance.org/, or America’s Pledge at https://www.bloomberg.org/program/environment/americas-pledge/, both platforms committed to fight climate change. Other ways in which citizens can have a greater involvement in the energy-transition phenomenon is in solar energy, where people could install solar panels on the roof of their houses. This option would solve the delicate debate over where to place wind farms as part of the energy-transition phenomenon.
- 181.
For a similar approach to explain how work happens, see McAfee and Brynjolfsson (2017).
- 182.
“Coming attractions: Smart grids,” in Hawken (2017), p. 209.
- 183.
Idem.
- 184.
Unlike the twentieth century electrical grid, which was a one-way system.
- 185.
IEA (2011).
- 186.
M. Kanellos, “Smart grid price tag: $476 billion; benefits: $2 trillion,” 8 April 2011, available at https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/smart-grid-price-tag-476-billion-benefits-2-trillion#gs._aWoaGw.
- 187.
Scientific American, “Renewable Energy Intermittency Explained: Challenges, Solutions, and Opportunities,” Scientific American, 11 March 2015. [Online]. Available: https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/plugged-in/renewable-energy-intermittency-explained-challenges-solutions-and-opportunities/.
- 188.
See for instance the case of a floating solar farm in China, which is the largest in the world. Daley, J. “China turns on the world’s largest floating solar farm,” Smithsonian.com, 7 June 2017, available at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/china-launches-largest-floating-solar-farm-180963587/. Other places where there would be potential for solar mega-farms would be the Arabian and Sahara deserts because there is a lot of sunlight and they are not cloudy.
- 189.
European Commission, “Smart grids and meters,” available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/market-and-consumers/smart-grids-and-meters.
- 190.
Article 3, paragraph 11 Directive 2009/72/EC concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity.
- 191.
Since humans have a geological impact, a way to tackle the issue of increase in energy consumption is the so-called Pigou effect. To have less of something, you need to tax it in order to deal with the unsustainability problem. For an analysis of how humans have damaged the environment and how it can be fixed, see Carson (1962); Georgescu-Roegen (1971); Naess (2010); Baudrillard (1998); Yudina (2017); OECD (2011).
- 192.
European Commission (2017).
- 193.
Parliament and Council Directive 2004/22/EC, On Measuring Instruments, 2004 O.J. (L 135) 1.
- 194.
Papakonstantinou and Kloza (2015), pp. 41 and 46.
- 195.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity and Repealing Directive 2003/54/EC, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55; Parliament and Council Directive 2009/73/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Natural Gas; Parliament and Council Regulation 714/2009/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Network for Cross-Border Exchanges in Electricity; Parliament and Council Regulation 715/2009/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Natural Gas Transmission Networks; Parliament and Council Regulation 713/2009/EC, Establishing an Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators.
- 196.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, annex 1(2), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 197.
Id.
- 198.
Id. art. 10 (“Member States shall implement measures to achieve the objectives of social and economic cohesion and environmental protection, which shall include energy efficiency/demand-side management measures and means to combat climate change, and security of supply, where appropriate. Such measures may include, in particular, the provision of adequate economic incentives, using, where appropriate, all existing national and Community tools, for the maintenance and construction of the necessary network infrastructure, including interconnection capacity.”); art. 11(“In order to promote energy efficiency, Member States or, where a Member State has so provided, the regulatory authority shall strongly recommend that electricity undertakings optimise the use of electricity, for example by providing energy management services, developing innovative pricing formulas, or introducing intelligent metering systems or smart grids, where appropriate.”)
- 199.
See Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A Digital Agenda for Europe, COM (2010) 245 final (May 19, 2010).
- 200.
Commission Recommendation of 9 March 2012 on Preparations for the Roll-out of Smart Metering, pp. 9–22, COM (2012) 1342 final (Mar. 13, 2012).
- 201.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 7 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 202.
Since the publication of the CEER Report, Greece and Romania have implemented national programs for the roll out of smart grids. See also European Technology Platform SmartGrids (2016).
- 203.
For instance, the Flemish government approved the concept note, “Digital meters: Roll-out in Flanders,” on February 3, 2017. The Flemish regulatory body VREG was asked by the Flemish government to update its earlier cost-benefit analysis on the basis of the principles of the new concept note. VREG concluded that the roll-out of the smart meters in Flanders would be a correct policy decision. See, Kosten-batenanalyse slimme meters, VREG (July 11, 2017), https://perma.cc/VW6J-U45C.
- 204.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 17 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 205.
Id. at 7, 17.
- 206.
See Carmen Gimeno, GEODE Workshop Presentation: From Theory to Reality: Overview of Smart Meters Roll-Out Across Europe (Mar. 20, 2014); Cost-Benefit Analyses & State of Play of Smart Metering Deployment in the EU-27, p. 33, C (2014) 189 final (June 17, 2014).
- 207.
The metering activity in Italy is regulated by the Regulation ARG/elt 199/11 (TIT).
- 208.
Press Release, Enel S.p.A., Enel Presents Enel Open Meter, The New Electronic Meter (Sept. 5, 2016), https://www.enel.com/en/media/press/d201606–enel-presents-enel-open-meter-the-new-electronic-meter.html.
- 209.
Italian legislative decree 102/2014; Autorita per l’energia elettrica il gas e il sistema idrico (AGEESI), Smart Metering Second-Generation Systems for the Measurement of Electricity in Low Voltage (Aug. 6, 2015) http://www.autorita.energia.it/it/docs/dc/15/416–15.jsp#.
- 210.
Cost-benefit analyses & state of play of smart metering deployment in the EU-27, p. 35, C (2014) 189 final (June 17, 2014).
- 211.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 14 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 212.
Atrias and MIG6.0: Towards a New Energy Market Model in Belgium, Energy Outlook by Sia Partners (July 12, 2017) https://perma.cc/D5CA-CJ9J.
- 213.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 14 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 214.
Id.
- 215.
Id.
- 216.
Veldman et al. (2010), pp. 287–289; see also Adrian de Hauteclocque & Yannick Perez, Law & Economics Perspectives on Electricity Regulation (EUI Working Paper RSCAS 21, 2011).
- 217.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 19 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 218.
Id.
- 219.
Id. at 20.
- 220.
Id.
- 221.
Id.; World Energy Council, “World Energy Perspective: Smart Grids: Best Practice Fundamentals for a Modern Energy System,” 14–15 (2012).
- 222.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 20 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014); Energy Research Knowledge Centre, SETIS Energy Research – Austria, European Comm’n (Sept. 5, 2017), https://perma.cc/NEW8–UYGQ.
- 223.
Id.
- 224.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 20 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 225.
Id.
- 226.
Id. at 21.
- 227.
Id.
- 228.
Int’l Energy Agency, Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids 16 (2011) https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/smartgrids_roadmap.pdf; Hörter et al. (2015), pp. 291 and 297.
- 229.
Int’l Energy Agency, Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids 15–16 (2011) https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/smartgrids_roadmap.pdf.
- 230.
Id. at 16.
- 231.
Id.
- 232.
Contadores Inteligentes y Protección de Datos, EnerConsultoría (Dec. 8, 2015) http://www.enerconsultoria.es/BlogLeyesEnergia.aspx?id=36002236&post=Contadoresinteligentesyprotecciondedatos.
- 233.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 16 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 234.
Id.
- 235.
Id.
- 236.
European Regulators Group for Electricity & Gas, Final Guidelines of Good Practice on Regulatory Aspects of Smart Metering for Electricity and Gas, p. 12 (E10–RMF-29–05, Feb. 8, 2011).
- 237.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 16 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 238.
USmart Consumer Project (2016).
- 239.
Annex I, point 2 Directive 2009/72/EC concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity.
- 240.
Commission staff working document country fiches for electricity smart metering. Report form the Commission benchmarking smart metering deployment in the EU-27 with a focus on electricity, p. 108, SWD(2014) 188 final (17 July 2014).
- 241.
ICCS-NTUA and AF-MERCADOS-EMI, “Study on Cost Benefit Analysis of Smart Metering Systems in EU Member States,” ICCS-NTUA and AF-MERCADOS-EMI, 2015.
- 242.
VREG, “The future of smart metering in Flanders/Belgium,” VREG, 2013.
- 243.
Brugel (2013).
- 244.
Vlaanderen, “De digitale energiemeter,” Vlaanderen. Available at: https://www.vlaanderen.be/nl/bouwen-wonen-en-energie/elektriciteit-aardgas-en-verwarming/dedigitale-energiemeter.
- 245.
Comisión Nacional de los Mercados y la Competencia, “El 62% de los contadores analógicos ya han sido sustituidos por contadores inteligentes,” Nota de Prensa, 2017.
- 246.
Leiva (2016).
- 247.
USmart Consumer Project (2016).
- 248.
Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC and 2006/32/EC.
- 249.
Commission Recommendation 2012/148/EU of 9 March 2012 on preparations for the roll-out of smart metering systems.
- 250.
Report from the Commission “Benchmarking smart metering deployment in the EU-27 with a focus on electricity”, p. 6, COM (2014) 356 final (17 June 2014).
- 251.
Commission staff working document country fiches for electricity smart metering accompanying the document Report form the Commission benchmarking smart metering deployment in the EU-27 with a focus on electricity”, SWD(2014) 188 final (17 July 2015).
- 252.
Report from the Commission “Benchmarking smart metering deployment in the EU-27 with a focus on electricity”, p. 6, COM (2014) 356 final (17 June 2014).
- 253.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European D1.1 Legislation, business models and social aspects 152 Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Region, p. 5, COM (2015) 339 final (15 July 2015).
- 254.
European Commission, “Smart grids and meters,” European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/market-and-consumers/smart-grids-and-meters.
- 255.
Zhou and Brown (2017), pp. 22–32.
- 256.
F. Villa, “Regulation of Smart Meters and AMM Systems in Italy,” in 19th International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED), Vienna, 2007.
- 257.
Idem.
- 258.
Regulatory Authority for Energy, “Hellenic Electricity Distribution Network Management Code,” Ministerial Decision 395/2016, Official Gazette 78/ B /2017.
- 259.
Ministry of Environment, Energy & Climate Change, Ministerial Decision, GG B 297/13.2.2013 “Intelligent Systems Development of Measurement to HEDNO.”
- 260.
“Commission Recommendation of 9 March 2012 on preparations for the roll-out of smart metering systems (2012/148/EU).”
- 261.
European Parliament, Briefing Smart Electricity Grids and Meters in the EU Member States (Sep. 2015), http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/568318/EPRS_BRI%282015%29568318_EN.pdf.
- 262.
Metering & Smart Energy International, available at: www.metering.com/features-analysis/smart-meters-101-frances-linky-electricity-meters.
- 263.
Metering & Smart Energy International, available at: www.metering.com/features-analysis/smart-meters-101-frances-linky-electricity-meters and The Guardian, “Is your smart meter spying on you?” available at: www.theguardian.com/money/2017/jun/24/smart-meters-spying-collecting-private-data-french-british.
- 264.
Metering & Smart Energy International, “Smart meters 101: France’s Linky electricity meters,” available at: www.metering.com/features-analysis/smart-meters-101-frances-linky-electricity-meters.
- 265.
Ibid.
- 266.
Ibid.
- 267.
Global Smart Grid Federation, June 2013 newsletter, available at: www.globalsmartgridfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/13-05-juni.pdf.
- 268.
Ibid.
- 269.
European Union, Third Energy Package 2009, Directive on electricity 2009/72/EC, repealing Directive 2003/54/EC and Directive on gas 2009/73/EC, repealing Directive 2003/55/EC.
- 270.
Energy Industry Act, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/enwg_2005/EnWG.pdf.
- 271.
Act on the Digitisation of the Energy Transition, available at: www.bundesrat.de/SharedDocs/drucksachen/2016/0301-0400/349-16.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1.
- 272.
USmartConsumer Project, European Smart Metering Landscape Report 2016, USmartConsumer, Madrid.
- 273.
Act on the Digitisation of the Energy Transition, available at: www.bundesrat.de/SharedDocs/drucksachen/2016/0301-0400/349-16.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=1.
- 274.
Ernst & Young, Report 2013.
- 275.
Metering Point Operating Act 2016, Article 1, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/messbg/MsbG.pdf.
- 276.
- 277.
- 278.
- 279.
- 280.
- 281.
- 282.
- 283.
N. Geiling, “In landmark case, Dutch citizens sue their government over failure to act on climate change,” 14 April 2015, available at https://thinkprogress.org/in-landmark-case-dutch-citizens-sue-their-government-over-failure-to-act-on-climate-change-e01ebb9c3af7/. See also D. van Berkel, “Urgenda: Climate case explained,” available at https://www.urgenda.nl/en/themas/climate-case/climate-case-explained/.
- 284.
J. Pieters, “Netherlands’ 2020 climate goals “out of reach”,” 25 January 2019, NL Times, available at https://nltimes.nl/2019/01/25/netherlands-2020-climate-goals-reach-planning-office-says.
- 285.
Ibid.
- 286.
Commission Staff Working Paper, Analysis associated with the Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe, Part I, Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of Regions, Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe, SEC(2011) 1067 final, Brussels, 20.9.2011.
- 287.
See for instance life cycle assessment of energy and environmental impacts of LED lighting products, at https://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/publications/pdfs/ssl/lca_factsheet_apr2013.pdf.
- 288.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 2014.
- 289.
Wasted: How America Is Losing Up to 40 Percent of Its Food from Farm to Fork to Landfill, Natural Resources Defense Council.
- 290.
The Case for Fixing the Leaks, American Water Works Association.
- 291.
IIEA 2014.
- 292.
Global Food Report, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, January 2013.
- 293.
Is the world thirsty for water management? IBM.
- 294.
Alpen-Adria University, “Institute of social ecology,” at https://www.aau.at/en/social-ecology/research/social-metabolism/.
- 295.
Kennedy et al. (2007), pp. 43–59.
- 296.
Frosch and Gallopoulos (1989), p. 144.
- 297.
Morgera and Savaresi (2013), pp. 14–28.
- 298.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Next Steps for a Sustainable European Future European Action for Sustainability, COM(2016) 739 final (22 November 2016).
- 299.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament. Closing the Loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, COM(2015) 614 final (2 December 2015).
- 300.
Boulos et al. (2015).
- 301.
De los Ríos and Charnley (2017), pp. 109–122. See also the Zero Waste Europe initiative at http://www.zerowasteeurope.eu/category/products/epr-extended-producer-responsibility/.
- 302.
Industrial ecology examines “the influences of economic, political, regulatory, and social factors on the flow, use, and transformation of resources.” See White (1994). “The aim of industrial ecology is to restructure the industrial system, inspired by our understanding of biological ecosystems (cyclic use of resources, food webs, etc.)…” See Erkman and Ramaswamy (2003).
- 303.
See the work of the Ellen MacArthur Foundation on circular economy, https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/.
- 304.
De los Ríos and Charnley (2017), pp. 109–122.
- 305.
Braungart (2009).
- 306.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament. Closing the Loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, COM(2015) 614 final (2 December 2015).
- 307.
Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, 4 July 2012 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), L 197/38, 24.7.2012.
- 308.
De los Ríos and Charnley (2017), pp. 109–122.
- 309.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste, COM(2015) 594 final (2 December 2015).
- 310.
See Annex 1 Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament. Closing the Loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, COM(2015) 614 final (2 December 2015).
- 311.
Langlet and Mahmoudi (2016).
- 312.
Framework Directive on Waste 75/442/EEC [1975].
- 313.
See Article 1 Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste.
- 314.
Cherrington et al. (2012), p. 14.
- 315.
European Parliament and Council Directive 94/62/EC of 20 December 1994 on packaging and packaging waste.
- 316.
Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on of-of-life vehicles.
- 317.
Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)—recast as Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012.
- 318.
Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives, L 312/3, 22.11.2008, where the principle of “extended producer responsibility” is introduced for the first time.
- 319.
See Article 1 Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
- 320.
Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives.
- 321.
See Article 15 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives.
- 322.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Extended producer responsibility,” OECD, [Online]. Available: http://www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/extendedproducerresponsibility.htm.
- 323.
See Recital 6 Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
- 324.
Beyond the EU boundaries, research shows that “solar PV systems are now at or approaching retail electricity prices in many markets, across both residential and commercial user segments.” See Report: Solar at grid parity in 80% of world by 2017, available at http://www.utilitydive.com/news/report-solar-at-grid-parity-in-80-of-world-by-2017/370346/.
- 325.
Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 July 2012 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE).
- 326.
Royal Decree 110/2015 of 20 February.
- 327.
Legislative Decree No. 49, 14 March 2014, Implementing Directive 2012/19/EU on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE).
- 328.
Cherrington et al. (2012), pp. 13–21.
- 329.
2006 Municipal Solid Waste Management Report, Municipal solid waste management in Germany TASi one year on—no wastes landfilled without pretreatment in Germany since 1 June 2005—A new era has dawned in municipal solid waste management, 1 September 2006, [On-line]. Available http://www.bmub.bund.de/fileadmin/bmu-import/files/pdfs/allgemein/application/pdf/bericht_siedlungsabfallentsorgung_2006_engl.pdf.
- 330.
Cherrington et al. (2012), pp. 13–21.
- 331.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste, COM(2015) 594 final (2 December 2015).
- 332.
- 333.
Kalimo et al. (2014), pp. 40–57.
- 334.
Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste, COM(2011) 13 final (19 January 2011).
- 335.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Closing the loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, Brussels, 2.12.2015, COM(2015) 614 final.
- 336.
London (1932).
- 337.
M. Krajewski, “The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy,” IEEE Spectrum, 24 September 2014. [Online]. Available: http://spectrum.ieee.org/geek-life/history/the-great-lightbulb-conspiracy.
- 338.
Ibid.
- 339.
Boulos et al. (2015), p. 4.
- 340.
- 341.
Dalhammar (2016), p. 155.
- 342.
A. M. Bundgaard et al., “Ecodesign Directive 2.0. From Energy Efficiency to Resource Efficiency,” Environmental project No. 1635, 2015, Aalborg, 2017; Ardente et al. (2014), pp. 158–171; RREUSE, “Improving Product Reparability: Policy Option at the EU Level,” RREUSE, 2015.
- 343.
RREUSE, “Improving Product Reparability: Policy Option at the EU Level”, RREUSE, September 2015, [On-line]. Available http://www.rreuse.org/wp-content/uploads/Routes-to-Repair-RREUSE-final-report.pdf.
- 344.
Law No. 2015-992 on Energy Transition for Green Growth (Energy Transition Law); “I.-L’obsolescence programmée se définit par l’ensemble des techniques par lesquelles un metteur sur le marché vise à réduire délibérément la durée de vie d’un produit pour en augmenter le taux de remplacement.” https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichCodeArticle.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT0000 06069565&idArticle=LEGIARTI000031053376 [translation from French by Rafael Leal-Arcas].
- 345.
Maitre-Ekern and Dalhammar (2016), pp. 378–394.
- 346.
Pickern (2014), pp. 403–423.
- 347.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament. Closing the Loop—An EU action plan for the Circular Economy, COM(2015) 614 final (2 December 2015).
- 348.
European Environmental Bureau (2015).
- 349.
See Part 1.3, point (i) of Annex I Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-related products.
- 350.
Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Department, A Longer Lifetime for Products: Benefits for Consumers and Companies, IP/A/IMCO/2015-11 June 2016.
- 351.
Boulos et al. (2015).
- 352.
Maitre-Ekern and Dalhammar (2016), pp. 378–394.
- 353.
Ibid.
- 354.
Union of the Electric Industry (Eurelectric) (2011), p. 14.
- 355.
de Hauteclocque and Perez (2011), p. 5.
- 356.
Council of European Energy Regulators (CEER), “CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”),” CEER, C13-EQS-57-04, Brussels, 2014; European Regulators Group for Electricity & Gas (ERGEG), “Position Paper on Smart Grids: An ERGEG Public Consultation Paper,” ERGEG, E09-EQS-30-04, 2009.
- 357.
- 358.
Stoppani (2017), pp. 10 and 17.
- 359.
- 360.
Veldman et al. (2010), p. 287 at 300.
- 361.
It will be interesting to see whether Chile, a very rich country in lithium, will end up a new Saudi Arabia as a result of large amounts of lithium.
- 362.
Peter Campbell, “Electric car costs forecast to hit parity with petrol vehicles,” Financial Times, 19 May 2017.
- 363.
“OPEC Drastically Increases 2040 Electric Vehicle Forecast,” Manufacturing, 18 July 2017, available at https://mfgtalkradio.com/opec-drastically-increases-2040-electric-vehicle-forecast/.
- 364.
The Economist, “Roadkill,” 12 August 2017, pp. 7–8.
- 365.
Idem.
- 366.
Idem.
- 367.
The Economist, “Electrifying everything,” 12 August 2017, pp. 13–15 at 13.
- 368.
The Economist, “Roadkill,” 12 August 2017, pp. 7–8.
- 369.
Idem (citing the National Resources Defense Council in the USA).
- 370.
The Economist, “Charge of the battery brigade,” 9 September 2017, pp. 63–64 at p. 64.
- 371.
Idem, citing the US Department of Energy.
- 372.
The Economist, “Charge of the battery brigade,” 9 September 2017, pp. 63–64 at p. 64.
- 373.
Idem.
- 374.
Idem.
- 375.
Idem.
- 376.
The Economist, “Crude awakening,” 9 February 2019, p. 9.
- 377.
Commission White Paper: Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a Competitive and Resource-Efficient Transport System, p. 9, COM (2011) 144 Final (Mar. 28, 2011).
- 378.
Parliament and Council Directive 2014/94/EU, On the Deployment of Alternative Fuels Infrastructure, 2014 O.J. (L 307) 1.
- 379.
Commission Communication to the European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility, COM (2016) 501 final (July 20, 2016).
- 380.
European Environment Agency, Report on Electric Vehicles in Europe 47 (2016).
- 381.
Paul Hockenos, With Norway in Lead, Europe Set for Surge in Electric Vehicles, Yale Env’t 360 (Feb. 6, 2017) https://e360.yale.edu/features/with-norway-in-the-lead-europe-set-for-breakout-on-electric-vehicles; European Vehicle Market Statistics, 2015/2016, Int’l Council on Clean Transp. (Nov. 25, 2015) http://www.theicct.org/european-vehicle-market-statistics-2015–2016.
- 382.
European Environment Agency, Report on Electric Vehicles in Europe 60 (2016).
- 383.
Id. at 62.
- 384.
Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme, Int’l Energy Agency, http://www.ieahev.org/; Ken Seaton, The Push for Electric Cars, The Connexion (Sept. 19, 2013) https://www.connexionfrance.com/Archive/The-push-for-electric-cars.
- 385.
European Environment Agency, Report on Electric Vehicles in Europe 23 (2016).
- 386.
Id. at 26.
- 387.
Pete McAllister, Huge New Study Compares Every UK Council’s Electric Vehicle Usage, Intelligent Car Leasing (Jan. 23, 2015) http://www.intelligentcarleasing.com/blog/new-study-compares-every-uk-council-electric-vehicles.
- 388.
Lewis Macdonald, Bulgarian City Introduces Free Parking for Electric Cars, Eltis: The Urban Mobility Observatory (Nov. 12, 2014) http://www.eltis.org/discover/news/bulgarian-city-introduces-free-parking-electric-cars.
- 389.
European Environment Agency, Report on Electric Vehicles in Europe 62 (2016).
- 390.
International Energy Agency: Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme, “Belgium,” International Energy Agency. Available at: http://www.ieahev.org/bycountry/Belgium.
- 391.
National Climate Commission, “Greenhouse gas inventory for Belgium,” Brussels, 2016.
- 392.
Boussauw and Vanoutrive (2017), pp. 11–19.
- 393.
European Alternative Fuels Observatory (EAFO), “Belgium,” EAFO, available at: http://www.eafo.eu/content/belgium; European Environment Agency (EEA) (2016).
- 394.
European Environment Agency (EEA) (2016).
- 395.
International Energy Agency (2015).
- 396.
The International Energy Agency. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme, “Spain Policies and Legislation,” The International Energy Agency. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme. Available at: http://www.ieahev.org/by-country/spain-policy-and-legislation/.
- 397.
Martínez Lao (2017).
- 398.
Ávila Rodríguez (2017).
- 399.
The International Energy Agency. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme, “Spain Policies and Legislation,” The International Energy Agency. Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme. Available at: http://www.ieahev.org/by-country/spain-policy-and-legislation.
- 400.
Corriente Eléctrica, “Se activa el Plan MOVEA 2017 para coches y vehículos eléctricos,” Corriente Eléctrica, 17 June 2017. Available at: http://corrienteelectrica.renault.es/asi-sera-el-plan-movea-2017-para-coches-y-vehiculos-electricos/.
- 401.
Ávila Rodríguez (2017).
- 402.
Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism, “Estrategia de Impulso del vehículo con energías alternativas (VEA) en España (2014–2020),” Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism, 2015.
- 403.
Martínez Lao (2017).
- 404.
Article 82, paragraph 2 Sustainable Economy Law 2/2011 of 4 March.
- 405.
Article 6, point h) Electricity Sector Law 24/2013 of 26 December.
- 406.
Ávila Rodríguez (2017).
- 407.
Article 48, paragraph 1 Electricity Sector Law 24/2013 of 26 December.
- 408.
Article 2, paragraph 1 Royal Decree 639/2016 of 9 December.
- 409.
Article 4, paragraphs 4 and 5 Royal Decree 639/2016 of 9 December.
- 410.
Bjerkan (2016).
- 411.
Martínez Lao (2017).
- 412.
Ávila Rodríguez (2017).
- 413.
Martínez Lao (2017).
- 414.
Energías Renovables, “La escasez de puntos de recarga frena la compra de coches eléctricos más que el precio,” Energías Renovables. El periodismo de las energías limpias, 22 June 2017. Available at: https://www.energias-renovables.com/movilidad/la-escasez-de-puntos-de-recarga-frena-20170622.
- 415.
Amsterdam Vehicle2Grid, “The Solution to Sustainable Urban Mobility and Energy,” Amsterdam Vehicle2Grid, Available at: http://www.amsterdamvehicle2grid.nl.
- 416.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Electric vehicle,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/red21/electric-vehicle.
- 417.
Idem.
- 418.
Deloitte, “¿Cuántos coches eléctricos necesita España?” Deloitte. Available at: https://www2.deloitte.com/es/es/pages/strategy/articles/Cuantos-coches-electricos-necesita-Espana.html.
- 419.
Idem.
- 420.
A. A. &. C. Scamoni, “Lexology,” Globe Business Media Group, 1 September 2016. Available at: http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=4bf3dda1-44ba-47c3-a860-af76ca74cbe4.
- 421.
E. Comelli, “ItalyEurope24,” Il Sole 24 ORE, 23 February 2017.
- 422.
F. Villa, “Regulation of Smart Meters and AMM Systems in Italy,” in 19th International Conference on Electricity Distribution (CIRED), Vienna, 2007.
- 423.
Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme, “Hybrid & Electric Vehicle Technology Collaboration Programme,” International Energy Agency. Available at: http://www.ieahev.org/by-country/italy-policy-and-legislation.
- 424.
Endergiewende Team, “Greece’s first battery storage system under way in the Aegean Sea,” Energy Transition, 2 May 2017.
- 425.
Idem.
- 426.
Idem.
- 427.
Ministère de la Transition écologique et solidaire, “Bonus-malus écologique, prime à la conversion et bonus vélo”, 10 January 2018, available at www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/bonus-malus-ecologique-prime-conversion-et-bonus-velo.
- 428.
Ministère de la Transition écologique et Solidaire, Bonus écologique, available at www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/files/bonus%202-3%20roues-misenpage.pdf.
- 429.
The malus is “une taxe additionnelle à la taxe sur les certificats d’immatriculation”, specifically, “Le malus écologique est une taxe à la première immatriculation concernant les véhicules les plus émetteurs de dioxyde de carbone.” See www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/bonus-malus-ecologique-prime-conversion-et-bonus-velo.
- 430.
Ibid.
- 431.
Ibid.
- 432.
France Becomes Fifth Nation To Buy 100,000 Plug-in Vehicles, Hybrid Cars (Oct. 10, 2016), https://www.hybridcars.com/france-becomes-fifth-nation-to-buy-100000-plug-in-vehicles/.
- 433.
L’utilisation du Véhicule électrique Comme Moyen de Stockage, Smart Grids-CRE, http://www.smartgrids-cre.fr/index.php?p=stockage-vehicule-electrique.
- 434.
Taefi et al. (2016), pp. 61–79.
- 435.
Federal Minister for Economic Affairs and Energy, “Regulatory environment and incentives for using electric vehicles and developing a charging infrastructure,” available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/regulatory-environment-and-incentives-for-using-electric-vehicles.html.
- 436.
Schaufenster Elektromobilitaet, available at schaufenster-elektromobilitaet.org/en/content/index.html.
- 437.
Slam Projekt, available at www.slam-projekt.de.
- 438.
European Parliament and the Council, Directive 2014/94/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure Text with EEA relevance, available at eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32014L0094.
- 439.
Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, Strategy for Autonomous and Connected Driving 2015, available at www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/EN/publications/strategy-for-automated-and-connected-driving.pdf?__blob=publicationFile.
- 440.
German Road Traffic Regulations, available at www.bmvi.de/SharedDocs/EN/publications/german-road-traffic-regulations.pdf?__blob=publicationFile.
- 441.
Fulbright, Norton Rose, Autonomous vehicles, 2017.
- 442.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, R&D funding provided by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/electric-mobility-r-d-funding.html.
- 443.
See generally Ministry of Economic Affairs of the Netherlands, “Energy Report: Transition to sustainable energy,” 2016, available at https://www.government.nl/documents/reports/2016/04/28/energy-report-transition-tot-sustainable-energy.
- 444.
Smart Energy International, “Netherlands aims to ban conventionally-fueled vehicles by 2050,” 4 February 2019, available at https://www.smart-energy.com/industry-sectors/electric-vehicles/netherlands-aims-to-ban-conventionally-fueled-vehicles-by-2050/.
- 445.
Ibid.
- 446.
Ibid.
- 447.
Ibid.
- 448.
Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “We are the Netherlands. Your partner in E-mobility,” pp. 14–15, 2017, available at https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2017/10/We%20are%20the%20Netherlands%20your%20partner%20in%20E-mobility%20-%201535_CU_E-mobility%20ENG%20IV%20def%20v1.0.pdf.
- 449.
See generally Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “We are the Netherlands. Your partner in E-mobility,” 2017.
- 450.
Ibid, pp. 18–19.
- 451.
Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “Electric transport in the Netherlands, Highlights 2017,” pp. 32–34, 2018, available at https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2018/04/Highlights%20EV%202017%20English.pdf.
- 452.
Ibid. at pp. 33–34.
- 453.
Ibid at p. 34.
- 454.
See generally Netherlands Enterprise Agency, “We are the Netherlands. Your partner in E-mobility,” 2017.
- 455.
Ibid. p. 49.
- 456.
- 457.
Int’l Energy Agency, Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids 12 (2011) https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/smartgrids_roadmap.pdf.
- 458.
Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators, Framework Guidelines on Electricity Balancing, p. 8 (FG-2012–E-009, Sept. 18, 2012); see also Murthy Balijepalli et al. (2011).
- 459.
See generally Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today (2015).
- 460.
Id. at 21.
- 461.
Philip Baker & Mike Hogan, The Market Design Initiative: Enabling Demand-Side Market, Regulatory Assistance Project 3 (Mar. 2016).
- 462.
Id. at 7.
- 463.
Parliament and Council Directive 2012/27/EU, On Energy Efficiency, 2012 O.J. (L 315) 1.
- 464.
Id., art. 15(4).
- 465.
Id.
- 466.
Id., art. 15(8).
- 467.
Article 8(6) of Regulation 714/2009/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Network for Cross-Border Exchanges in Electricity of the Third Energy Package set out the areas in which network codes are to be developed. They include balancing rules including network-related reserve power, data exchange and settlement rules, interoperability rules, network connection rules, network security and reliability rules, operational procedures in an emergency, amongst others. Commission Regulation 714/2009/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Network for Cross-Border Exchanges in Electricity, art. 8(6), 2009 O.J. (L 211) 15.
- 468.
Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators, Framework Guidelines on Electricity Balancing, pp. 12–13 (FG-2012–E-009, Sept. 18, 2012).
- 469.
Commission Guidelines on State Aid for Environmental Protection and Energy 2014–2020, 2014 O.J. (C 200) 1.
- 470.
Id.
- 471.
Id.
- 472.
Id.
- 473.
Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 6 (2016).
- 474.
Parliament and Council Directive 2012/27/EU, On Energy Efficiency, art. 28, 2012 O.J. (L 315) 1.
- 475.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Status Review on European Regulatory Approaches Enabling Smart Grids Solutions (“Smart Regulation”), p. 12 (C13–EQS-57–04, Feb. 18, 2014).
- 476.
Id.
- 477.
Residential Night Tariff, Hellenic Public Power Company SA (July 4, 2017), https://perma.cc/H64V-DMC3.
- 478.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 8–12 (2015).
- 479.
Fernandez et al. (2016), p. 458.
- 480.
See generally Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 8–12 (2015).
- 481.
Id.
- 482.
Id. at 11.
- 483.
Id. at 47–54; Belgian TSO Elia in Demand Response First, Restore (Sept. 6, 2017), https://www.restore.eu/export/pdfNews/113.
- 484.
Given that market players have an implicit responsibility to balance the electricity system, the balance responsible parties are financially responsible for keeping their own position (sum of their injections, withdrawals and trades) balanced over a given timeframe.
- 485.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 47 (2015).
- 486.
Id. at 51.
- 487.
Id. at 85.
- 488.
Id.; see also PA Consulting, OFGEM: Aggregators—Barriers and External Impacts (2016).
- 489.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 85 (2015).
- 490.
Id.
- 491.
Id. at 10.
- 492.
Id.; Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 31 (2016).
- 493.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 10 (2015).
- 494.
Id.
- 495.
Id. at 45.
- 496.
Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 69 (2016).
- 497.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 10–11 (2015).
- 498.
Id. at 98.
- 499.
Id. at 151.
- 500.
AEEG, DCO 528/2014/A, Consultation Document: Schema Di Linee Strategiche Per Il Quadriennio 2015–2018 (Oct. 30, 2014) http://www.autorita.energia.it/allegati/docs/14/528–14.pdf.
- 501.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 131 (2015); Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 81 (2016).
- 502.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 131 (2015).
- 503.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017).
- 504.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, “Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today,” Brussels, 2015.
- 505.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017).
- 506.
Idem.
- 507.
Idem.
- 508.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Interruptibility Service,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/activities/operation-of-the-electricity-system/interruptibility-service.
- 509.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017).
- 510.
IndustRE (2016).
- 511.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017).
- 512.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, “Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today,” Brussels, 2015.
- 513.
Idem.
- 514.
R. Panetta and A. D’Ottavio, “Data protection in Italy: overview,” Thomson Reuters, 1 12 2015. Available at: https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/9-502-4794?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default).
- 515.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, “Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today,” Brussels, 2015.
- 516.
ΛΑΓΗΕ Operator of the electricity market, “www.lagie.gr / DAS monthly reports May 2017.”
- 517.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017) available at http://www.smarten.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/SEDC-Explicit-Demand-Response-in-Europe-Mapping-the-Markets-2017.pdf, p. 10.
- 518.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition (2017) available at http://www.smarten.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/SEDC-Explicit-Demand-Response-in-Europe-Mapping-the-Markets-2017.pdf, p. 10. Moreover, p. 12: “France and Switzerland are still currently the only countries to have a clear framework on the status of independent aggregators and their role and responsibilities in the market […]”.
- 519.
This is per opposition to other European countries such as Slovenia and Poland, which, despite opening their markets to load participation, have chosen not to open them to aggregated load “therefore disqualifying all except the largest industrial consumers from accessing these markets.” See http://www.smarten.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/SEDC-Explicit-Demand-Response-in-Europe-Mapping-the-Markets-2017.pdf, p. 31.
- 520.
- 521.
Commission de regulation de l’energie. See: www.cre.fr/en.
- 522.
Commission de regulation de l’energie, “L’utilisation du véhicule électrique comme moyen de stockage’” available at: www.smartgrids-cre.fr/index.php?p=stockage-vehicule-electrique.
- 523.
Enel, “V2G, the car of the future is a battery,” available at: corporate.enel.it/en/stories/a/2017/05/V2G-the-car-of-the-future-is-a-battery.
- 524.
Ibid.
- 525.
Ibid.
- 526.
Commission de regulation de l’energie, “L’utilisation du véhicule électrique comme moyen de stockage’” available at: www.smartgrids-cre.fr/index.php?p=stockage-vehicule-electrique.
- 527.
Ibid.
- 528.
European Commission, State aid, Brussels, 24 October 2016.
- 529.
Verordnung über Vereinbarungen zu abschaltbaren Lasten (Verordnung zu abschaltbaren Lasten, AbLaV, available at: www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ablav_2016/BJNR198400016.html.
- 530.
Ibid.
- 531.
- 532.
- 533.
Id. at 11.
- 534.
Id.
- 535.
Id.
- 536.
Id. at 82; Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 54 (2016).
- 537.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today 11 (2015).
- 538.
Commission Report Benchmarking Smart Metering Deployment in the EU-27 with a Focus on Electricity, COM (2014) 356 Final (June 17, 2014).
- 539.
Id.
- 540.
See generally Nolan and O’Malley (2015), p. 1.
- 541.
See generally Smart Energy Demand Coalition, Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today (2015); Paolo Bertoldi, Paolo Zancanella, & Benigna Boza-Kiss, JRC Science for Policy Report: Demand Response status in EU Member States 42 (2016).
- 542.
1. Fluid storage, particularly pumped hydroelectric plants are the most common. They use off-peak electricity to pump water from a low reservoir uphill into an elevated reservoir. The water is then released through turbines to generate power at very short notice. 2. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) operates similarly although still experimental and not developed enough as a commercial storage application—electricity is used to compress air in underground caverns, then tapped later to drive gas turbines. 3. Hydrogen storage, which involves the hydrolysis of water to produce hydrogen gas, is compressed and stored, then converted to power when needed. However, the high explosion risk associated with the technology has impeded its viability.
- 543.
- 544.
Committee on Industry, Research and Energy, Energy Storage: Which Market Designs and Regulatory Incentives Are Needed? at 17 (PE 563.469, Oct. 2015).
- 545.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55; Parliament and Council Directive 2009/73/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Natural Gas, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 94; Parliament and Council Regulation 714/2009/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Network for Cross-Border Exchanges in Electricity, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 15; Parliament and Council Regulation 2009/715/EC, On Conditions for Access to the Natural Gas Transmission Networks, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 36; Parliament and Council Regulation 2009/713/EC, Establishing an Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 1.
- 546.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Memo on Development and Regulation of Electricity Storage Applications, p. 3 (C14–EQS-54–04, July, 21, 2014).
- 547.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 548.
Commission Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, p. 82, COM (2016) 864 final/2 (Feb. 23, 2017).
- 549.
Crossley (2013), p. 268.
- 550.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Memo on Development and Regulation of Electricity Storage Applications, pp. 2–3 (C14–EQS-54–04, July, 21, 2014).
- 551.
Id.
- 552.
Id.
- 553.
Id.; Commission Staff Working Document on Energy Storage – the Role of Electricity, SWD (2017) 61 final (Jan. 2, 2017).
- 554.
Gissey et al. (2016).
- 555.
Council of European Energy Regulators, CEER Memo on Development and Regulation of Electricity Storage Applications, p. 3 (C14–EQS-54–04, July, 21, 2014).
- 556.
Gissey et al. (2016), p. 3.
- 557.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 558.
Masson et al. (2016), p. 26.
- 559.
Jason Deign, Spain’s New Self-Consumption Law Makes Batteries Impractical for Homeowners, GreenTech Media, October 16, 2015. available at https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/spanish-self-consumption-law-allows-batteries-at-a-cost; Ibid.
- 560.
Crossley (2013), p. 268.
- 561.
European Parliament Committee on Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE), Study on Energy Storage: Which Market Designs and Regulatory Incentives Are Needed? (PE 563.469, 2015).
- 562.
Id.
- 563.
SIA Partners, “Energy Outlook: Energy Storage in Belgium,” SIA Partners, 10 May 2013. Available at: http://energy.sia-partners.com/energy-storage-belgium.
- 564.
I.-S. Brouhns, “CMS Guide to Energy Storage: Belgium,” Global Business Media Group, 1 September 2016. Available at: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=4ebed335-f539-46dc-95f2-bdf5d7bc705f.
- 565.
Idem.
- 566.
Smart Energy Demand Coalition, “Mapping Demand Response in Europe Today,” Brussels, 2015.
- 567.
Energías Renovables, “La escasez de puntos de recarga frena la compra de coches eléctricos más que el precio,” Energías Renovables. El periodismo de las energías limpias, 22 June 2017. Available at: https://www.energias-renovables.com/movilidad/la-escasez-de-puntos-de-recarga-frena-20170622.
- 568.
Stoppani (2017), p. 17.
- 569.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Energy Storage,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/red21/energy-storage.
- 570.
Stoppani (2017), p. 17.
- 571.
European Commission, Directive 2012/27/EU, on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC, 25 October 2012.
- 572.
Committee on Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE) European Parliament, “Energy Storage: Which Market Designs and Regulatory Incentives Are Needed?” European Commission, 2015.
- 573.
European Commission, Directive 2012/27/EU, on energy efficiency, amending Directives 2009/125/EC and 2010/30/EU and repealing Directives 2004/8/EC, 25 October 2012.
- 574.
Anagnostopoulos and Papantonis (2013).
- 575.
Garanis-Papadatos and Boukis (2016).
- 576.
Gissey et al. (2016). Committee on Industry, Research and Energy (ITRE) European Parliament, “Energy Storage: Which Market Designs and Regulatory Incentives Are Needed?” European Commission, 2015.
- 577.
EDF, “Smoothing and storing photovoltaic generation,” available at: www.edf.fr/sites/default/files/contrib/groupe-edf/premier-electricien-mondial/cop21/solutions/pdf/cop21-solutions_toucan_va.pdf.
- 578.
Ibid.
- 579.
Ibid.
- 580.
William Pentland, French Nuclear Giant Gambles Big On Energy Storage, Forbes (Mar. 27, 2018), https://www.forbes.com/sites/williampentland/2018/03/27/french-nuclear-giant-gambles-big-on-energy-storage/#404b846dd8ff.
- 581.
CleanTechnica, French Utility Company EDF Plans Energy Storage Push, available at: cleantechnica.com/2018/04/04/french-utility-company-edf-plans-energy-storage-push.
- 582.
Renewable Energy Sources Act 2017, available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Downloads/renewable-energy-sources-act-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=3.
- 583.
Ibid.
- 584.
Ibid.
- 585.
CMS Germany, CMS Guide to Energy Storage: Germany. 2016.
- 586.
C. van der Weijden, “CMS Guide to Energy Storage: The Netherlands,” available at https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=5a326284-f6aa-4439-b733-05d4eecc70f5.
- 587.
AES, “Fleet accelerates energy storage market in Europe,” Dutchreview, 17 February 2016, available at https://www.aes.com/default.aspx?SectionId=5cc5ecae-6c48-4521-a1ad-480e593e4835&LanguageId=1&PressReleaseId=cd734f50-3398-4a5b-8ca1-8b2926a9590b.
- 588.
Idem.
- 589.
V. Licheva, “The Dutch just launched the largest energy storage system in Europe,” 17 July 2018, available at https://dutchreview.com/news/innovation/the-dutch-just-launched-the-largest-energy-storage-system-in-europe/.
- 590.
Idem.
- 591.
C. van der Weijden, “CMS Guide to Energy Storage: The Netherlands,” available at https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=5a326284-f6aa-4439-b733-05d4eecc70f5.
- 592.
European Commission, “Electricity interconnection targets.” Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/infrastructure/projects-common-interest/electricity-interconnection-targets.
- 593.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council. Achieving 10% electricity interconnection target. Making Europe’s electricity grid fit for 2020, p. 4, COM (2015) 82 final (25 February 2015).
- 594.
European Commission, “Electricity interconnection targets,” Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/infrastructure/projects-common-interest/electricityinterconnection-targets.
- 595.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council. European Energy Security Strategy, p. 10, COM (2014) 330 final (28 May 2014).
- 596.
European Commission, “Projects of Common Interest,” European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/infrastructure/projects-common-interest.
- 597.
Nemo Link, “Overview. Why an interconnector?” Nemo Link. Available at: http://www.nemolink.com/the-project/overview/.
- 598.
Elia Group (2016).
- 599.
TSCNET Services, “Interconnecting Belgium and Germany,” TSCNET Services, 30 September 2016. Available at: http://www.tscnet.eu/interconnecting-belgium-and-germany/.
- 600.
Elia Group (2017).
- 601.
European Commission, “Financing trans-European energy infrastructure – the Connecting Europe Facility,” 5 March 2015. Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-15-4554_en.htm.
- 602.
International Energy Agency (2016).
- 603.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council. Achieving 10% electricity interconnection target. Making Europe’s electricity grid fit for 2020, p. 4, COM (2015) 82 final (25 February 2015).
- 604.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Strengthening interconnections,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/red21/strengthening-interconnections.
- 605.
European Commission, “Electricity interconnection targets.” Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/infrastructure/projects-common-interest/electricity-interconnection-targets.
- 606.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council. European Energy Security Strategy, p. 10, COM (2014) 330 final (28 May 2014).
- 607.
Booz & Company et al. (2013).
- 608.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Strengthening interconnections,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/red21/strengthening-interconnections.
- 609.
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity, “Scenario Outlook and Adequacy Forecast 2014,” 2014.
- 610.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council. Achieving 10% electricity interconnection target. Making Europe’s electricity grid fit for 2020, p. 4, COM (2015) 82 final (25 February 2015).
- 611.
European Commission, “Building the Energy Union: Key electricity interconnection between France and Spain completed,” European Commission—Press release, 2015.
- 612.
European Commission, “Projects of common interest,” European Commission. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/infrastructure/projects-common-interest.
- 613.
European Commission, “Financing trans-European energy infrastructure – the Connecting Europe Facility,” European Commission—Fact Sheet, 5 March 2015. Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-15-4554_en.htm.
- 614.
Red Eléctrica de España, “Spain-France underground interconnection,” Red Eléctrica de España. Available at: http://www.ree.es/en/activities/unique-projects/new-interconnection-with-france.
- 615.
Madrid Declaration, Madrid: Energy Interconnections Links Summit, 2015.
- 616.
Idem.
- 617.
European Commission, “European Commission Country Reports,” 2014. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/2014_countryreports_italy.pdf.
- 618.
Energypedia, “Greece Energy Situation,” 26 April 2017.
- 619.
Official Journal of the European Union, “On guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure and repealing Decision No 1364/2006/EC and amending Regulations (EC) No 713/2009, (EC) No 714/2009 and (EC) No 715/2009.” Available at: https://eur-ex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2013:115:0039:0075:en:PDF.
- 620.
European Commission, “European Commission Country Reports,” 2014. Available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/2014_countryreports_italy.pdf.
- 621.
- 622.
European Commission, “European Commission Country Reports,” 2014.
- 623.
Idem.
- 624.
Verbong et al. (2013), pp. 117–125.
- 625.
Eid et al. (2016).
- 626.
Bressand (2013), pp. 15–29.
- 627.
- 628.
- 629.
- 630.
- 631.
Idem.
- 632.
- 633.
- 634.
The Climate Group, GeSI, “SMART 2020: Enabling the low carbon economy in the information age”, 2008. [On-line]. Available: http://gesi.org/files/Reports/Smart%202020%20report%20in%20English.pdf.
- 635.
European Commission Directorate-General Information Society and Media, ICT for Sustainable Growth Unit, “ICT for a Low Carbon Economy”, Smart Electricity Distribution Networks, July 2009.
- 636.
Liu et al. (2012), pp. 981–987.
- 637.
Polinpapilinho et al. (2016), pp. 1–20.
- 638.
C. Wueest, “Attacks Against the Energy Sector,” Symantec Official Blog, 13 January 2014. [Online]. Available: https://www.symantec.com/connect/blogs/attacks-against-energy-sector.
- 639.
Smart meters are advanced metering systems which provide real-time information on consumers’ energy use or generation. They use digital technologies, regularly update information and provide two-way electronic communication between consumers and the grid. See Joachain and Klopfert (2014), pp. 89–96.
- 640.
REScoop, “6.1 European Legislative Environment”, REScoop, 2017. European Parliamentary Research Service, “Smart electricity grids and meters in the EU Member States”, EPRS, September 2015. [On-line]. Available: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/568318/EPRS_BRI%282015%29568318_EN.pdf.
- 641.
Liu et al. (2012), pp. 981–987.
- 642.
“Ukraine power cut ‘was cyber-attack’,” BBC News, 11 January 2017, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-38573074.
- 643.
Cesar Cerrudo, Why Cybersecurity Should Be The Biggest Concern Of 2017, Forbes (Jan. 17, 2017), https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/01/17/why-cybersecurity-should-be-the-biggest-concern-of-2017/#4a61899c5218.
- 644.
Roscini (2014).
- 645.
Id.; Ciere et al. (2016).
- 646.
See generally Masera et al. (2016),p. 85.
- 647.
Katina et al. (2016), pp. 1–20.
- 648.
Commission Staff Working Document Accompanying the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Second Strategic Energy Review An EU Energy Security and Solidarity Action Plan: Europe’s Current and Future Energy Position – Demand-Resource-Investments, SEC (2008) 2871 (Nov. 13, 2008).
- 649.
Pearson (2011), p. 5211.
- 650.
Katina et al. (2016), pp. 1–20.
- 651.
Wang and Lu (2013), p. 1344.
- 652.
K.T. Weaver, Smart Meter Deployments Result in a Cyber Attack Surface of “Unprecedented Scale”, Smart Grid Awareness (Jan. 7, 2017), https://smartgridawareness.org/2017/01/07/cyber-attack-surface-of-unprecedented-scale/.
- 653.
Katina et al. (2016), pp. 1–20.
- 654.
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 07/2013 on the Data Protection Impact Assessment Template for Smart Grid and Smart Metering Systems (“DPIA Template”), 2064/13/EN WP209 (2013).
- 655.
Anca Gurzu, Hackers Threaten Smart Power Grids, Politico (Apr. 1, 2017), http://www.politico.eu/article/smart-grids-and-meters-raise-hacking-risks/.
- 656.
See generally Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace, JOIN (2013) 1 final (Feb. 7, 2013).
- 657.
Id.
- 658.
Such as energy theft and fraud, sensitive information theft, service disruption for the purpose of extortion, cyber-espionage, vandalism, hacktivism and terrorism.
- 659.
K.T. Weaver, Smart Meter Deployments Result in a Cyber Attack Surface of “Unprecedented Scale”, Smart Grid Awareness (Jan. 7, 2017), https://smartgridawareness.org/2017/01/07/cyber-attack-surface-of-unprecedented-scale/.
- 660.
Such as geo-location data, tracking and profiling on the internet, video surveillance systems, radio frequency identification systems, et cetera. See Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 04/2013 on the Data Protection Impact Assessment Template for Smart Grid and Smart Metering Systems (‘DPIA Template’) para 29 prepared by Expert Group 2 of the Commission’s Smart Grid Task Force, 00678/13/EN, WP205, 22 April 2013; Recommendation CM/Rec(2010)13 of 23 November 2010 of the Council of Europe Committee of Ministers to Member States on the protection of individuals with regard to automatic processing of personal data in the context of profiling.
- 661.
Committee of Ministers, Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec (2010) 13 to Member States on the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data in the Context of Profiling (adopted Nov. 23, 2010).
- 662.
Liu et al. (2012), p. 981.
- 663.
US Dep’t of Energy, Transforming the Nation’s Electricity System: The Second Instalment of the QER (2017).
- 664.
Rule and Greenleaf (2010).
- 665.
Public opinion seems to be meeting these developments with concern, and suggestions are being put forward in order to empower users to gain better control of the situation. See in this sense Brian X. Chen, How to Protect Your Privacy as More Apps Harvest Your Data, N.Y. Times (May 2, 2017), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/03/technology/personaltech/how-to-protect-your-privacy-as-more-apps-harvest-your-data.html?mcubz=1.
- 666.
See generally Zulkafli et al. (2017), p. 58.
- 667.
As a practical example, see, for instance, the analysis provided by Cai and Jiang (2008), p. 1667.
- 668.
Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on A Digital Agenda for Europe, COM (2010) 245 final (May 19, 2010).
- 669.
Shah (2015), pp. 207 and 208.
- 670.
International Telecommunication Union, ICT Facts & Figures: The World in 2015 (2015).
- 671.
Rule and Greenleaf (2010).
- 672.
McKenna et al. (2012), p. 807.
- 673.
Brandeis and Warren (1890), p. 193.
- 674.
For a brief discussion of this topic, see Somini Sengupta, U.N. Urges Protection of Privacy in Digital Era, N.Y. Times (Nov. 25, 2014), https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/26/world/un-urges-protection-of-privacy-in-digital-era.html?mcubz=1.
- 675.
Meg Roggensack, Face It Facebook, You Just Don’t Get It, Huffington Post (May 25, 2010), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/human-rights-first/face-it-facebook-you-just_b_589045.html.
- 676.
Rule and Greenleaf (2010).
- 677.
Jennifer Stoddart, Privacy Commissioner of Canada, Remarks at the 2010 Access and Privacy Conference: Why Privacy Still Matters in the Age of Google and Facebook and How Cooperation Can Get Us There (June 10, 2010) (available at https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-news/speeches/2010/sp-d_20100610/).
- 678.
European Comm’n, Flash Eurobarometer 443 (2016).
- 679.
Balta-Ozkan et al. (2013), p. 363.
- 680.
Lazar et al. (2015).
- 681.
Id.
- 682.
Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Smart Grids, COM (2011) 202 final (Apr. 12, 2011).
- 683.
See Dow Launches 2025 Sustainability Goals to Help Redefine the Role of Business in Society, Dow (Apr. 15, 2015) (arguing that “[b]y 2025, Dow will work with other industry leaders, non-profit organizations and governments to deliver six major projects that facilitate the world’s transition to a circular economy,”), http://www.dow.com/news/press-releases/dow%20launches%202025%20sustainability%20goals%20to%20help%20redefine%20the%20role%20of%20business%20in%20society.
- 684.
European Convention on Human Rights, Sept. 3, 1953, CETS no. 194.
- 685.
See generally Lynskey (2015).
- 686.
Article 16 TFEU reads as follows:
1. Everyone has the right to the protection of personal data concerning them.
2. The European Parliament and the Council, acting in accordance with the ordinary legislative procedure, shall lay down the rules relating to the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data by Union institutions, bodies, offices and agencies, and by the Member States when carrying out activities which fall within the scope of Union law, and the rules relating to the free movement of such data. Compliance with these rules shall be subject to the control of independent authorities. The rules adopted on the basis of this Article shall be without prejudice to the specific rules laid down in Article 39 of the Treaty on European Union.
TFEU, art. 16.
- 687.
Lynskey (2016), p. 1.
- 688.
Izyumenko (2011).
- 689.
Parliament and Council Directive 1995/46/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31 [hereinafter 1995 Data Protection Directive].
- 690.
Parliament and Council Directive 2002/58/EC, Concerning the Processing of Personal Data and the Protection of Privacy in the Electronic Communications Sector, 2002 O.J. (L 201) 37.
- 691.
Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA, On the Protection of Personal Data Processed in the Framework of Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters, 2008 O.J. (L 350) 60.
- 692.
Parliament and Council Regulation 2001/45/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data by the Community Institutions and Bodies and on the Free Movement of Such Data, 2001 O.J. (L 8) 1.
- 693.
Papakonstantinou and Kloza (2015), pp. 41–129.
- 694.
Cuijpers and Koops (2012), p. 269.
- 695.
Lynskey (2014), p. 569.
- 696.
For a full overview, see European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014).
- 697.
Article 52 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union:
Article 52 Scope of guaranteed rights 1. Any limitation on the exercise of the rights and freedoms recognised by this Charter must be provided for by law and respect the essence of those rights and freedoms. Subject to the principle of proportionality, limitations may be made only if they are necessary and genuinely meet objectives of general interest recognised by the Union or the need to protect the rights and freedoms of others. 2. Rights recognised by this Charter which are based on the Community Treaties or the Treaty on European Union shall be exercised under the conditions and within the limits defined by those Treaties. 3. In so far as this Charter contains rights which correspond to rights guaranteed by the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, the meaning and scope of those rights shall be the same as those laid down by the said Convention. This provision shall not prevent Union law providing more extensive protection.
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, art. 52, Dec. 12, 2007, 2007 O.J. (C 303) 1.
- 698.
Article 8(2) of the European Convention on Human Rights reads as follows:
2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.
European Convention on Human Rights, art. 8(2).
- 699.
Convention for the Protection of Individuals with Regard to Automatic Processing of Personal Data, Jan. 28, 1981, ETS 108. For further details, see Complete List of the Council of Europe’s Treaties, Council of Europe, https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/treaty/108.
- 700.
Parliament and Council Directive 95/46/EC reads as follows:
1. Member States shall provide that personal data must be: (a) processed fairly and lawfully; (b) collected for specified, explicit and legitimate purposes and not further processed in a way incompatible with those purposes. Further processing of data for historical, statistical or scientific purposes shall not be considered as incompatible provided that Member States provide appropriate safeguards; (c) adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purposes for which they are collected and/or further processed; (d) accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date; every reasonable step must be taken to ensure that data which are inaccurate or incomplete, having regard to the purposes for which they were collected or for which they are further processed, are erased or rectified; (e) kept in a form which permits identification of data subjects for no longer than is necessary for the purposes for which the data were collected or for which they are further processed. Member States shall lay down appropriate safeguards for personal data stored for longer periods for historical, statistical or scientific use. 2. It shall be for the controller to ensure that paragraph 1 is complied with.
Parliament and Council Directive 1995/46/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, art. 6, 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31.
- 701.
Parliament and Council Regulation 2016/679/EU, On the Protection of Natural Persons with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, art. 5.1(b), 2016 O.J. (L 119) 1 [hereinafter General Data Protection Regulation].
- 702.
Id.
- 703.
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 03/2013 on Purpose Limitation, 00569/13/EN WP 203, (2013).
- 704.
Parliament and Council Directive 1995/46/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, art 6(1)(b), 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31.
- 705.
Id. rec. 29.
- 706.
European Data Protection Supervisor, “Privacy and Competitiveness in the Age of Big Data: The Interplay Between Data Protection, Competition Law and Consumer Protection in the Digital Economy,” 23–24 (2014).
- 707.
Parliament and Council Directive 1995/46/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data and on the Free Movement of Such Data, art 6(1)(c), 1995 O.J. (L 281) 31.
- 708.
Juan Shishido, Smart Meter Data Quality Insights 1 (2012).
- 709.
Fairness of processing is referred to, notably, in recital 45, and paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article 6 (“Lawfulness of processing”) of the General Data Protection Regulation. Parliament and Council Regulation 2001/45/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data by the Community Institutions and Bodies and on the Free Movement of Such Data, rec. 45, art. 6, 2001 O.J. (L 8) 1.
- 710.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014), p. 75.
- 711.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data,” 15 (2013).
- 712.
Article 29 Data Protection Working Party, Opinion 3/2010 on the Principle of Accountability, 00062/10/EN, WP 173 (2010).
- 713.
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2014), p. 76.
- 714.
Parliament and Council Regulation 2001/45/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data by the Community Institutions and Bodies and on the Free Movement of Such Data, art. 4(5), 2001 O.J. (L 8) 1.
- 715.
Parliament and Council Regulation 2001/45/EC, On the Protection of Individuals with Regard to the Processing of Personal Data by the Community Institutions and Bodies and on the Free Movement of Such Data, rec. 28, 2001 O.J. (L 8) 1.
- 716.
Liu et al. (2012), pp. 981–987.
- 717.
Smart Grid Task Force Group 3, Workshop on Experiences and Conditions for Successful Implementation of Storage 1 (2016).
- 718.
Id.
- 719.
Commission Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Smart Grids, COM (2011) 202 final (Apr. 12, 2011).
- 720.
Smart Grid Task Force 2012 Expert Group 2, “Data Protection Impact Assessment Template for Smart Grid and Smart Metering Systems” (2014).
- 721.
Id.
- 722.
Mayer-Schönberger and Padova (2016), p. 315.
- 723.
Kosta (2013).
- 724.
Purtova (2015), pp. 83 and 83.
- 725.
Schwartz (2000), p. 743.
- 726.
Joint Communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union, JOIN (2013) 1 final (Feb. 7, 2013).
- 727.
Id. at 3.
- 728.
Parliament and Council Directive 2016/1148/EU, Concerning Measures for a High Common Level of Security of Network and Information Systems Across the Union, 2016 O.J. (L 194) 1.
- 729.
Parliament and Council Regulation 460/2004/EC, Establishing the European Network and Information Security, 2016 O.J. (L 77) 1.
- 730.
Day (2016), p. 4.
- 731.
Id. at 1.
- 732.
In the European Union’s legal system, European Regulations are self-executing; they require no “transposition” into the legal orders of the different Member States, they are directly binding, and can be directly resorted to by individuals. See TFEU, art. 288.
- 733.
Parliament and Council Directive 2016/1148/EU, Concerning Measures for a High Common Level of Security of Network and Information Systems Across the Union, art. 11, 2016 O.J. (L 194) 1.
- 734.
Id. art. 9, art. 11, annex I.
- 735.
Id. art. 5(2).
- 736.
Id. art 14.
- 737.
Id. art. 19(1).
- 738.
Parliament and Council Directive 2009/72/EC, Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity, 2009 O.J. (L 211) 55.
- 739.
Id. annex II. DSO is defined in art. 2(4) and 2(6).
- 740.
Id. art. 2(35).
- 741.
- 742.
Smedt (2015), pp. 213–218.
- 743.
T. D’hulst, “Data Protection in Belgium: overview,” Practical Law—Thomson Reuters, 1 July 2016. Available at: https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/2-502-2977?__lrTS=2017061019 2313070&transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default).
- 744.
Council of European Energy Regulators (CEER), “CEER Benchmarking Report on Meter Data Management Case Studies,” CEER, Brussels, 2012.
- 745.
Idem.
- 746.
Smart Grids Task Force, “My Energy Data (Report by Expert Group on Smart Grid Deployment (EG1)),” 2016.
- 747.
SIA Partners, “Atrias and MIG6.0: Towards a new energy market model in Belgium,” SIA PArtners, 1 July 2016. Available at: http://energy.sia-partners.com/20160701/atrias-and-mig60-towardsnew-energy-market-model-belgium.
- 748.
Smart Grids Task Force, “My Energy Data (Report by Expert Group on Smart Grid Deployment (EG1)),” 2016.
- 749.
Article 45, paragraph 3 Data Protection Law 15/1999.
- 750.
Hogan Lovells (2015).
- 751.
Azim-Khan (2008).
- 752.
Linklaters, “Data Protected. Spain. General. Data Protection Laws,” Linklaters. Available at: https://clientsites.linklaters.com/Clients/dataprotected/Pages/Spain.aspx.
- 753.
Spanish Data Protection Agency, “Spanish Data Protection Agency,” Spanish Data Protection Agency, Madrid.
- 754.
European Smart Grid Task Force (2016).
- 755.
Leiva (2016).
- 756.
EnerConsultoría. Derecho de la energía, “contadores inteligentes y protección de datos,” EnerConsultoría. Derecho de la energía, 8 December 2015. Available at: http://www.enerconsultoria.es/BlogLeyesEnergia.aspx?id=36002236&post=Contadoresinteligentesyprotecciondedatos.
- 757.
EnerConsultoría. Derecho de la energía, “contadores inteligentes y protección de datos,” EnerConsultoría. Derecho de la energía, 8 December 2015.
- 758.
Rubio (2017).
- 759.
Schiavo et al. (2011).
- 760.
Smart Grids Task Force, “My Energy Data (Report by Expert Group on Smart Grid Deployment (EG1)),” 2016.
- 761.
Idem.
- 762.
European Regulators’ Group for Electricity and Gas (ERGEG) (2007).
- 763.
Directive 95/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 1995 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data.
- 764.
Karageorgiou & Associates Law Firm, “Linklaters LLP.”
- 765.
Papakonstantinou and Kloza (2015), pp. 41–129.
- 766.
Joined Cases C-293/12 and 594/12, Digital Rights Ireland and Seitlinger and Others.
- 767.
Commission Nationale de l’Informatique et des Libertés, available at: www.cnil.fr/fr/cnil-direct/question/1254.
- 768.
Décision n ° 2018-765 DC du 12 Juin 2018, Conseil Constitutionnel, https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/decision/2018/2018765DC.htm.
- 769.
Bryan Cave, France Adopts Regulations Implementing the GDPR, Lexology (Aug. 24, 2018), https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=e4de5746-c831-419e-b48a-712cef451985.
- 770.
Id.
- 771.
Id.
- 772.
Patrick Collison, “Is your smart meter spying on you?” The Guardian, 24 June 2017, available at www.theguardian.com/money/2017/jun/24/smart-meters-spying-collecting-private-data-french-british.
- 773.
Smart Grid Awareness, France: No Legal Basis for Smart Meter Data Collection without Valid Consent, available at: smartgridawareness.org/2018/04/01/no-legal-basis-for-smart-meter-data-collection.
- 774.
Ibid.
- 775.
Ibid.
- 776.
Ibid.
- 777.
European Parliament and of the Council, Directive 95/46/EC, available at eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:31995L0046.
- 778.
Federal Data Protection Act (Bundesdatenschutzgesetz) (BDSG), available at www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bdsg/englisch_bdsg.pdf.
- 779.
European Parliament and of the Council, Regulation (EU) 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32016R0679&from=EN.
- 780.
Norbert Nolte and Christoph Werkmeister, Data protection in Germany: overview, Practical Law, available at uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/3-502-4080?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true.
- 781.
Lisa Alejandro et al., Global Market for Smart Electricity Meters: Government Policies Driving Strong Growth, U.S. International Trade Commission, No. ID-037, 2014.
- 782.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, R&D funding provided by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/electric-mobility-r-d-funding.html.
- 783.
Ibid.
- 784.
Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI), Das Smart-Meter-Gateway, Cyber-Sicherheit für die Digitalisierung der Energiewende, 2018.
- 785.
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, R&D funding provided by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy, available at www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/electric-mobility-r-d-funding.html.
- 786.
Colette Cuijpers and Bert-Jaap Koops, Het wetsvoorstel ‘slimme meters’: een privacytoets op basis van art. 8 EVRM [The ‘smart meters’ bill: a privacy test based on article 8 ECHR], Study commissioned by the Dutch Consumers’ Association, October 2008.
- 787.
For an analysis of how transformation can happen locally, see Hopkins (2013).
- 788.
Some commentators question that the industrial economy is circular and argue, instead, that it is entropic and that the concept of ‘circular economy’ is only an aspiration of the twenty-first century. The industrial economy uses exhaustible resources such as fossil fuels. It burns them for energy. The energy dissipates and produces CO2 in excessive quantities. The industrial economy deposits waste anywhere it can: the atmosphere, oceans, and rivers. See Haas et al. (2015); Caticha and Golan (2014), pp. 149–163. Arguably, there is no circular economy because of the use of fossil fuels. However, technology will eventually rectify this situation. See Harremoes et al. (2001). The protection of the environment has led to the creation of the concept of eco-compensation, which aims at compensating land users or suppliers of ecosystem services for lost income due to environmental protection policies. See E. Gray and C. Jones, “Eco-compensation in China: Opportunities for Payments for Watershed Services,” World Resources Institute, 15 May 2012, available at http://www.wri.org/blog/2012/05/eco-compensation-china-opportunities-payments-watershed-services. Other commentators believe in the concept of degrowth, such as Kallis (2018), or wealth without growth, such as Jackson (2016).
- 789.
- 790.
- 791.
One can think, for instance, of the National Industrial Symbiosis Program, Nat’l Indus. Symbiosis Program http://www.nispnetwork.com/about-nisp.
- 792.
An interesting remark is that there is even a political commitment to clean energy for EU islands. The rationale is that islands could make use of tidal, solar, and wind energy. See “Political declaration on clean energy for EU islands,” 18 May 2017, available at https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/170505_political_declaration_on_clean_energy_for_eu_islands-_final_version_16_05_20171.pdf.
- 793.
According to Jason Bordoff, the nuclear renaissance stalled because of: a flat electricity demand, cheap shale gas, falling renewable costs and support policies, lack of carbon pricing, declining wholesale electricity prices, and rising nuclear costs. That said, nuclear energy still accounts for most zero-carbon power in many countries. See lecture by Jason Bordoff at Harvard University, 5 October 2018.
- 794.
Hawken (2017), p. 209.
- 795.
European Commission, “Clean energy for all. New Electricity Market Design: A Fair Deal for Consumers,” 2016.
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Leal-Arcas, R. (2019). Practical Applications of Decentralized Energy in the EU. In: Solutions for Sustainability. European Yearbook of International Economic Law(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23933-6_8
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