Abstract
Rape myths play a pivotal role in the social construction of rape. Rape myths exonerate rapists, legitimize sexual aggression, and consequently, foster sexual aggression. Contemporary rape myths include: men cannot be raped, there must be physical resistance for it to be rape, and rape victims are partly responsible for their rape because they engaged in risky behaviors (e.g., they dressed provocatively, got drunk, or signaled a desire for sex). Rape myths help to create a victim who is blamed for the event and lead to secondary victimization when victims disclose the rape. Myths can be held at the individual level, at an institutional level, and at a cultural level. These myths can prevent victims from recognizing that they were raped and prevent assailants from understanding that they raped. They create a justice gap in which police, lawyers, and juries impose their beliefs concerning real rape on rape survivors. And, rape myths can create cultures in which rape is acceptable when it is perpetrated against legitimate targets. These rape myths are especially likely in some male-dominated peer groups (e.g., fraternities, athletic groups, or the military). Recognizing rape mythology helps people to understand the true nature of many rapes and is essential in the fight against rape.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abbey, A., & McAuslan, P. (2004). A longitudinal examination of male college students’ perpetration of sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 747–756. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.5.747
Allard, C. B., Nunnink, S., Gregory, A. M., Klest, B., & Platt, M. (2011). Military sexual trauma research: A proposed agenda. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation, 12, 324–345.
Anderson, K. B., Cooper, H., & Okamura, L. (1997). Individual differences and attitudes toward rape: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 295–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297233008
Anderson, L. A., & Whiston, S. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 374–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00237.x
Aosved, A. C., & Long, P. J. (2006). Co-occurrence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, racism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and religious intolerance. Sex Roles, 55, 481–492. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9101-4
Baldwin-White, A., Thompson, M. S., & Gray, A. (2016). Pre- and postintervention factor analysis of the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25, 636–651. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2015.1107173
Barnett, N. J., & Felid, H. S. (1977). Sex differences in university students’ attitudes toward rape. Journal of College Student Personnel, 18, 93–96.
Bedera, N., & Nordmeyer, K. (2015). ‘Never go out alone’: An analysis of college rape prevention tips. Sexuality and Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 19(3), 533–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-015-9274-5
Bendixen, M., Henriksen, M., & Nøstdahl, R. K. (2014). Attitudes toward rape and attribution of responsibility to rape victims in a Norwegian community sample. Nordic Psychology, 66(3), 168–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/19012276.2014.931813
Benedict, J. R. (1998). Athletes and acquaintance rape. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bleecker, E. T., & Murnen, S. K. (2005). Fraternity membership, the display of degrading sexual images of women, and rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 53, 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7136-6
Boeringer, S. B. (1999). Associations of rape-supportive attitudes with fraternal and athletic participation. Violence Against Women, 5, 81–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778019922181167
Bohner, G., Eyssel, F., Pina, A., Siebler, F., & Viki, G. T. (2009). Rape myth acceptance: Cognitive, affective and behavioural effects of beliefs that blame the victim and exonerate the perpetrator. In M. Horvath, J. Brown, M. Horvath, & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 17–45). Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Bohner, G., Jarvis, C. I., Eyssel, F., & Siebler, F. (2005). The causal impact of rape myth acceptance on men’s rape proclivity: Comparing sexually coercive and noncoercive men. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 819–828. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.284
Bohner, G., Siebler, F., & Schmelcher, J. (2006). Social norms and the likelihood of raping: Perceived rape myth acceptance of others affects men’s rape proclivity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 286–297. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205280912
Bondurant, B. (2001). University women’s acknowledgment of rape. Violence Against Women, 7, 294–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778010122182451
Bongiorno, R., McKimmie, B. M., & Masser, B. M. (2016). The selective use of rape-victim stereotypes to protect culturally similar perpetrators. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40, 398–413. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684316631932
Brecklin, L. R., & Forde, D. R. (2001). A meta-analysis of rape education programs. Violence and Victims, 16, 303–321.
Briere, J., Malamuth, N., & Check, J. V. (1985). Sexuality and rape-supportive beliefs. International Journal of Women’s Studies, 8, 398–403.
Brown, J. M., & Horvath, M. H. (2009). Do you believe her and is it real rape? In M. Horvath, J. Brown, M. Horvath, & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 325–342). Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Brown, L. S. (2017). Contributions of feminist and critical psychologies to trauma psychology. In S. N. Gold & S. N. Gold (Eds.), APA handbook of trauma psychology: Foundations in knowledge (pp. 501–526). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000019-025
Brownmiller, S. (1975/1981). Against our will: Men, women, and rape. New York: Bantam.
Burt, M. R. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217–230. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.217
Canto, J. M., Perles, F., & Martín, J. S. (2017). Culture of honour and the blaming of women in cases of rape/La cultura del honor y la inculpación de la mujer en casos de violación. Revista de Psicología Social, 32, 80–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2016.1250488
Carr, J. L., & VanDeusen, K. M. (2004). Risk factors for male sexual aggression on college campuses. Journal of Family Violence, 19, 279–289. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOFV.0000042078.55308.4d
Carroll, M. H., & Clark, M. D. (2006). Men’s acquaintance rape scripts: A comparison between a regional university and a military academy. Sex Roles, 55, 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9102-3
Carroll, M. H., Rosenstein, J. E., Foubert, J. D., Clark, M. D., & Korenman, L. M. (2016, April 11). Rape myth acceptance: A comparison of military service academy and civilian fraternity and sorority students. Military Psychology, 28, 306. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000113
Chiroro, P., Bohner, G., Viki, G. T., & Jarvis, C. I. (2004). Rape myth acceptance and rape proclivity: Expected dominance versus expected arousal as mediators in acquaintance-rape situations. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 19, 427–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503262081
Clark, M. D., & Carroll, M. H. (2008). Acquaintance rape scripts of women and men: Similarities and differences. Sex Roles, 58, 616–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9373-3
Cook, C. L., & Lane, J. (2017). Blaming the victim: Perceptions about incarcerated sexual assault victim culpability among a sample of jail correctional officers. Victims & Offenders, 12(3), 347–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2015.1065531
Costin, F., & Kaptanoḡlu, C. (1993). Beliefs about rape and women’s social roles: A Turkish replication. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 327–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420230308
Costin, F., & Schwarz, N. (1987). Beliefs about rape and women’s social roles: A four-nation study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2, 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626087002001003
Davis, T. L., & Liddell, D. L. (2002). Getting inside the house: The effectiveness of a rape prevention program for college fraternity men. Journal of College Student Development, 43(1), 35–50.
DeGue, S., & DiLillo, D. (2004). Understanding perpetrators of nonphysical sexual coercion: Characteristics of those who cross the line. Violence and Victims, 19, 673–688. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.6.673.66345
Deming, M. E., Covan, E. K., Swan, S. C., & Billings, D. L. (2013). Exploring rape myths, gendered norms, group processing, and the social context of rape among college women: A qualitative analysis. Violence Against Women, 19, 465–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801213487044
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5
Du Mont, J. D., Miller, K., & Myhr, T. L. (2003). The role of ‘real rape’ and ‘real victim’ stereotypes in the police reporting practices of sexually assaulted women. Violence Against Women, 9, 466–486. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801202250960
Edwards, K. M., Turchik, J. A., Dardis, C. M., Reynolds, N., & Gidycz, C. A. (2011). Rape myths: History, individual and institutional-level presence, and implications for change. Sex Roles, 65, 761–773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9943-2
Ellison, L., & Munro, V. E. (2009). Of ‘normal sex’ and ‘real rape’: Exploring the use of socio-sexual scripts in (mock) jury deliberation. Social & Legal Studies, 18(3), 291–312.
Ellison, L., & Munro, V. E. (2010). Getting to (not) guilty: Examining jurors’ deliberative processes in, and beyond, the context of a mock rape trial. Legal Studies, 30(1), 74–97.
Ellison, L., & Munro, V. E. (2013). Better the devil you know? ‘Real rape’ stereotypes and the relevance of a previous relationship in (mock) juror deliberations. The International Journal of Evidence & Proof, 17(4), 299–322.
Evans, J. (1995). Feminist theory today: An introduction to second-wave feminism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223–241.
Eyssel, F., & Bohner, G. (2008). Modern rape myths: The Acceptance of Modern Myths about Sexual Aggression (AMMSA) Scale. In M. A. Morrison, T. G. Morrison, M. A. Morrison, & T. G. Morrison (Eds.), The psychology of modern prejudice (pp. 261–276). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Feild, H. S. (1978). Attitudes toward rape: A comparative analysis of police, rapists, crisis counselors, and citizens. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 156–179. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.2.156
Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2003). Reporting sexual victimization to the police and others: Results from a national-level study of college women. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 30(1), 6–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854802239161
Flores, S. A., & Hartlaub, M. G. (1998). Reducing rape-myth acceptance in male college students: A meta-analysis of intervention studies. Journal of College Student Development, 39, 438–448.
Forbes, G. B., Adams-Curtis, L. E., Pakalka, A. H., & White, K. B. (2006). Dating aggression, sexual coercion, and aggression-supporting attitudes among college men as a function of participation in aggressive high school sports. Violence Against Women, 12, 441–455. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206288126
Foubert, J. D. (2000). The longitudinal effects of a rape-prevention program on fraternity men’s attitudes, behavioral intent, and behavior. Journal of American College Health, 48(4), 158–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009595691
Foubert, J. D., Brosi, M. W., & Bannon, R. S. (2011). Pornography viewing among fraternity men: Effects on bystander intervention, rape myth acceptance and behavioral intent to commit sexual assault. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 18, 212–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2011.625552
Foubert, J. D., & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766271
Foubert, J. D., & Newberry, J. T. (2006). Effects of two versions of an empathy-based rape prevention program on fraternity Men’s survivor empathy, attitudes, and behavioral intent to commit rape or sexual assault. Journal of College Student Development, 47(2), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2006.0016
Foubert, J. D., & Perry, B. C. (2007). Creating lasting attitude and behavior change in fraternity members and male student athletes: The qualitative impact of an empathy-based rape prevention program. Violence Against Women, 13, 70–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206295125
Franiuk, R., & Shain, E. A. (2011). Beyond Christianity: The status of women and rape myths. Sex Roles, 65, 783–791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9974-8
Frazier, P. A., & Seales, L. M. (1997). Acquaintance rape is real rape. In M. D. Schwartz & M. D. Schwartz (Eds.), Researching sexual violence against women: Methodological and personal perspectives (pp. 54–64). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781483327907.n4
Frith, H. (2009). Sexual scripts, sexual refusals and rape. In M. Horvath, J. Brown, M. Horvath, & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 99–122). Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Gerger, H., Kley, H., Bohner, G., & Siebler, F. (2007). The Acceptance of Modern Myths about Sexual Aggression Scale: Development and validation in German and English. Aggressive Behavior, 33, 422–440. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20195
Gidycz, C. A., Layman, M. J., Rich, C. L., Crothers, M., Gylys, J., Matorin, A., & Jacobs, C. D. (2001). An evaluation of an acquaintance rape prevention program: Impact on attitudes, sexual aggression, and sexual victimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1120–1138. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626001016011002
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491
Goodchilds, J. D., Zellman, G. L., Johnson, P. B., & Giarrusso, R. (1988). Adolescents and their perceptions of sexual interactions. Rape and sexual assault (Vol. 2, pp. 245–270).
Gray, J. M. (2006). Rape myth beliefs and prejudiced instructions: Effects on decisions of guilt in a case of date rape. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 11(1), 75–80. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532505X68250
Grey, R., & Shepherd, L. J. (2013). “Stop rape now?” Masculinity, responsibility, and conflict-related sexual violence. Men and Masculinities, 16, 115–135.
Grubb, A., & Turner, E. (2012). Attribution of blame in rape cases: A review of the impact of rape myth acceptance, gender role conformity and substance use on victim blaming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.06.002
Heppner, M. J., Humphrey, C. F., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L., & DeBord, K. A. (1995). The differential effects of rape prevention programming on attitudes, behavior, and knowledge. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.42.4.508
Hill, S., & Marshall, T. C. (2018). Beliefs about sexual assault in India and Britain are explained by attitudes toward women and hostile sexism. Sex Roles, 79, 421. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-017-0880-6
Hockett, J. M., Smith, S. J., Klausing, C. D., & Saucier, D. A. (2016). Rape myth consistency and gender differences in perceiving rape victims: A meta-analysis. Violence Against Women, 22, 139–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215607359
Horvath, M., & Brown, J. (2009). Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking. Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Huang, J. (2016). Rape myths and rape by juveniles. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 27(4), 489–503. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2016.1158848
Huang, J., & Lin, Y. (2017). Development of Chinese rape myths concept and scale [Abstract]. Chinese Journal of Psychology, 59(2), 63–87. Abstract received from PsycINFO Accession Number: 2017-41359-001.
Hutchinson, C. H., & McDaniel, S. A. (1986). The social reconstruction of sexual assault by women victims: A comparison of therapeutic experiences. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 5(2), 17–36. https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-1986-0013
Jones, M. E., Russell, R. L., & Bryant, F. B. (1998). The structure of rape attitudes for men and woman: A three-factor model. Journal of Research in Personality, 32, 331–350. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2217
Kahn, A. S., Jackson, J., Kully, C., Badger, K., & Halvorsen, J. (2003). Calling it rape: Differences in experiences of women who do or do not label their sexual assault as rape. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 27, 233–242. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-6402.00103
Kahn, A. S., Mathie, V. A., & Torgler, C. (1994). Rape scripts and rape acknowledgment. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 53–66.
Kanin, E. J. (1967). Reference groups and sex conduct norm violations. Sociological Quarterly, 8, 495–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1967.tb01085.x
Kanin, E. J. (1969). Selected dyadic aspects of male sex aggression. Journal of Sex Research, 5(1), 12–28.
Kanin, E. J. (1984). Date rape: Unofficial criminals and victims. Victimology, 9, 95–108.
Kingree, J. B., & Thompson, M. P. (2013). Fraternity membership and sexual aggression: An examination of mediators of the association. Journal of American College Health, 61, 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2013.781026
Klement, K. R., & Sagarin, B. J. (2017). Nobody wants to date a whore: Rape-supportive messages in women-directed Christian dating books. Sexuality and Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 21(1), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-016-9390-x
Koo, K. H., Stephens, K. A., Lindgren, K. P., & George, W. H. (2012). Misogyny, acculturation, and ethnic identity: Relation to rape-supportive attitudes in Asian American college men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1005–1014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9729-1
Koss, M. P., Dinero, T. E., Seibel, C. A., & Cox, S. L. (1988). Stranger and acquaintance rape: Are there differences in the victim’s experience? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00924.x
Koss, M. P., & Oros, C. J. (1982). Sexual experiences survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 455–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.50.3.455
Krahé, B. (1991). Police officers’ definitions of rape: A prototype study. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 1(3), 223–244. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2450010305
Krahé, B. (2016). Societal responses to sexual violence against women: Rape myths and the ‘real rape’ stereotype. In H. Kury, S. Redo, & E. Shea (Eds.), Women and children as victims and offenders: Background, prevention, reintegration: Suggestions for succeeding generations (pp. 671–700). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.
Krahé, B., & Temkin, J. (2009). Addressing the attitude problem in rape trials: Some proposals and methodological considerations. In M. Horvath, J. Brown, M. Horvath, & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 301–321). Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
Krahé, B., Temkin, J., Bieneck, S., & Berger, A. (2008). Prospective lawyers’ rape stereotypes and schematic decision making about rape cases. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(5), 461–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683160801932380
Kress, V. E., Shepherd, J. B., Anderson, R. I., Petuch, A. J., Nolan, J. M., & Thiemeke, D. (2006). Evaluation of the impact of a coeducational sexual assault prevention program on college students’ rape myth attitudes. Journal of College Counseling, 9(2), 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2006.tb00101.x
Kroner, D. G., Boer, D. P., & Mills, J. F. (2004). Explaining rape-supportive attitudes among rapists. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 22, 65–76.
Lawson, S. L., Munoz-Rojas, D., Gutman, L. S., & Siman, M. N. (2012). Changing attitudes and perceptions of Hispanic men ages 18 to 25 about rape and rape prevention. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 33, 864–870. https://doi.org/10.3109/01612840.2012.728279
Littleton, H., Grills, A., Layh, M., & Rudolph, K. (2017). Unacknowledged rape and re-victimization risk: Examination of potential mediators. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 41, 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684317720187
Littleton, H., Tabernik, H., Canales, E. J., & Backstrom, T. (2009). Risky situation or harmless fun? A qualitative examination of college women’s bad hook-up and rape scripts. Sex Roles, 60, 793–804. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9586-8
Littleton, H. L., Rhatigan, D. L., & Axsom, D. (2007). Unacknowledged rape: How much do we know about the hidden rape victim? Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 14, 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1300/J146v14n04_04
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00448.x
Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1995). Attitudinal antecedents of rape myth acceptance: A theoretical and empirical reexamination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 704–711. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.68.4.704
Martin, E. (2003). What is ‘rape?’—Toward a historical, ethnographic approach. In C. B. Travis & C. B. Travis (Eds.), Evolution, gender, and rape (pp. 363–381). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Martin, P. Y. (2016). The rape prone culture of academic contexts: Fraternities and athletics. Gender & Society, 30, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243215612708
Martin, P. Y., & Hummer, R. A. (1995). Fraternities and rape on campus. In P. Searles & R. J. Bergen (Eds.), Rape and society: Readings on the problem of sexual assault (pp. 139–151). Boulder: Westview.
McConahay, J. B. (1983). Modern racism and modern discrimination: The effects of race, racial attitudes, and context on simulated hiring decisions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 551–558. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283094004
McMahon, S. (2010). Rape myth beliefs and bystander attitudes among incoming college students. Journal of American College Health, 59, 3–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2010.483715
McMahon, S. (2015). Participation in high school sports and bystander intentions, efficacy to intervene, and rape myth beliefs. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30, 2980–2998. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514555009
McMahon, S., & Farmer, G. L. (2011). An updated measure for assessing subtle rape myths. Social Work Research, 35(2), 71–81.
McMullin, D., & White, J. W. (2006). Long-term effects of labeling a rape experience. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30(1), 96–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00266.x
Mikorski, R., & Szymanski, D. M. (2017). Masculine norms, peer group, pornography, Facebook, and men’s sexual objectification of women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 18(4), 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000058
Muir, G., Lonsway, K. A., & Payne, D. L. (1996). Rape myth acceptance among Scottish and American students. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 261–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1996.9714002
Nayak, M. B., Byrne, C. A., Martin, M. K., & Abraham, A. G. (2003). Attitudes toward violence against women: A cross-nation study. Sex Roles, 49, 333–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025108103617
Nosek, B., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2010). Project implicit. Project Implicit.
O’Brien, C., Keith, J., & Shoemaker, L. (2015). Don’t tell: Military culture and male rape. Psychological Services, 12, 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000049
O’Donohue, W., Yeater, E. A., & Fanetti, M. (2003). Rape prevention with college males: The roles of rape myth acceptance, victim empathy, and outcome expectancies. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18, 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260503251070
Oh, E., & Neville, H. (2004). Development and validation of the Korean Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. The Counseling Psychologist, 32, 301–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000003261351
O’Keeffe, S., Brown, J. M., & Lyons, E. (2009). Seeking proof or truth: Naturalistic decision-making by police officers when considering rape allegations. In M. Horvath, J. Brown, M. Horvath, & J. Brown (Eds.), Rape: Challenging contemporary thinking (pp. 229–254). Devon, UK: Willan Publishing.
O’Sullivan, C. (1993). Fraternities and the rape culture. In Buchwald, E., Fletcher, P. R., & Roth, M. (Eds.). Transforming a rape culture (pp. 23–20). Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions.
Parratt, K. A., & Pina, A. (2017). From ‘real rape’ to real justice: A systematic review of police officers’ rape myth beliefs. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 34, 68–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2017.03.005
Payne, D. L., Lonsway, K. A., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1999). Rape myth acceptance: Exploration of its structure and its measurement using the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Journal of Research in Personality, 33, 27–68. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1998.2238
Peterson, Z. D., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (2004). Was it rape? The function of women’s rape myth acceptance and definitions of sex in labeling their own experiences. Sex Roles, 51, 129–144. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037758.95376.00
Peterson, Z. D., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (2007). Conceptualizing the ‘wantedness’ of women’s consensual and nonconsensual sexual experiences: Implications for how women label their experiences with rape. Journal of Sex Research, 44(1), 72–88.
Peterson, Z. D., & Muehlenhard, C. L. (2011). A match-and-motivation model of how women label their nonconsensual sexual experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35, 558–570. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684311410210
Rau, T. J., Merrill, L. L., McWhorter, S. K., Stander, V. A., Thomsen, C. J., Dyslin, C. W., … Milner, J. S. (2010). Evaluation of a sexual assault education/prevention program for male U.S. Navy personnel. Military Medicine, 175, 429–434. https://doi.org/10.7205/MILMED-D-09-00218
Rebeiz, M. J., & Harb, C. (2010). Perceptions of rape and attitudes toward women in a sample of Lebanese students. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25, 735–752. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260509334410
Ryan, K. M. (1988). Rape and seduction scripts. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00939.x
Ryan, K. M. (2004). Further evidence for a cognitive component of rape. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9, 579–604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2003.05.001
Ryan, K. M. (2011). The relationship between rape myths and sexual scripts: The social construction of rape. Sex Roles, 65, 774–782. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0033-2
Sanday, P. R. (1990). Fraternity gang rape: Sex, brotherhood, and privilege on campus. New York, NY: New York University Press.
Schewe, P. (2002). Guidelines for developing rape prevention and risk reduction interventions. Preventing Violence in Relationships. https://doi.org/10.1037/10455-005
Schewe, P., & O’Donohue, W. (1993b). Rape prevention: Methodological problems and new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 667–682. https://doi.org/10.1016/0272-7358(93)90032-H
Schewe, P. A., Adam, N. M., & Ryan, K. M. (2009). A qualitative analysis of the temptation to use force in sexual relationships. Violence and Victims, 24, 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.24.2.219
Schewe, P. A., & O’Donohue, W. (1993a). Sexual abuse prevention with high-risk males: The roles of victim empathy and rape myths. Violence and Victims, 8, 339–351.
Schwartz, M. D., & DeKeseredy, W. S. (1997). Sexual assault on the college campus: The role of male peer support. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc..
Schwartz, M. D., & Leggett, M. S. (1999). Bad dates or emotional trauma? The aftermath of campus sexual assault. Violence Against Women, 5(3), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801992218121
Seabrook, R. C., McMahon, S., & O’Connor, J. (2018). A longitudinal study of interest and membership in a fraternity, rape myth acceptance, and proclivity to perpetrate sexual assault. Journal of American College Health, 66, 510. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1440584. (online.
Seabrook, R. C., Ward, L. M., & Giaccardi, S. (2018). Why is fraternity membership associated with sexual assault? Exploring the roles of conformity to masculine norms, pressure to uphold masculinity, and objectification of women. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000076
Sheldon, J. P., & Parent, S. L. (2002). Clergy’s attitudes and attributions of blame toward female rape victims. Violence Against Women, 8, 233–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778010222183026
Skinner, K. M., Kressin, N., Frayne, S., Tripp, T. J., Hankin, C. S., Miller, D. R., & Sullivan, L. M. (2000). The prevalence of military sexual assault among female Veterans’ Administration outpatients. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626000015003005
Smith, O., & Skinner, T. (2017). How rape myths are used and challenged in rape and sexual assault trials. Social & Legal Studies, 26, 441–466.
Stephens, K. A., & George, W. H. (2009). Rape prevention with college men: Evaluating risk status. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 996–1013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508319366
Stillman, T. F., Yamawaki, N., Ridge, R. D., White, P. H., & Copley, K. J. (2009). Comparing predictors of sexual harassment proclivity between Japanese and U.S. men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10, 30–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013918
Street, A., Mahan, C., Hendricks, A., Gardner, J., & Stafford, J. (2003). Military sexual trauma among the reserve components of the armed forces. US D. o. V. Affairs (Ed.).
Street, A. E., Stafford, J., Mahan, C. M., & Hendricks, A. (2008). Sexual harassment and assault experienced by reservists during military service: Prevalence and health correlates. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development, 45, 409.
Struckman-Johnson, C., & Struckman-Johnson, D. (1992). Acceptance of male rape myths among college men and women. Sex Roles, 27, 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00290011
Süssenbach, P., Eyssel, F., & Bohner, G. (2013). Metacognitive aspects of rape myths: Subjective strength of rape myth acceptance moderates its effects on information processing and behavioral intentions. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 2250–2272. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512475317
Temkin, J. (1987/2002). Rape and the legal process. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Temkin, J., Gray, J. M., & Barrett, J. (2018). Different functions of rape myth use in court: Findings from a trial observation study. Feminist Criminology, 13(2), 205–226.
Temkin, J., & Krahé, B. (2008). Sexual assault and the justice gap: A question of attitude. Portland, OR: Hart Publishing.
Truman, D. M., Tokar, D. M., & Fischer, A. R. (1996). Dimensions of masculinity: Relations to date rape supportive attitudes and sexual aggression in dating situations. Journal of Counseling & Development, 74, 555–562. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1996.tb02292.x
Tummala-Narra, P., Houston-Kolnik, J., Sathasivam-Rueckert, N., & Greeson, M. (2017). An examination of attitudes toward gender and sexual violence among Asian Indians in the United States. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 8, 156–166. https://doi.org/10.1037/aap0000078
Turchik, J. A., & Edwards, K. M. (2012). Myths about male rape: A literature review. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 13, 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023207
Ullman, S. E. (2010). Talking about sexual assault: Society’s response to survivors. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12083-000
Voller, E., Polusny, M. A., Noorbaloochi, S., Street, A., Grill, J., & Murdoch, M. (2015). Self-efficacy, male rape myth acceptance, and devaluation of emotions in sexual trauma sequelae: Findings from a sample of male veterans. Psychological Services, 12, 420–427. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000046
Ward, C. (1988). The attitudes toward rape victims scale: Construction, validation, and cross-cultural applicability. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 127–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00932.x
Warshaw, R. (1988/1994). I never called it rape (2nd ed.). New York: HarperPerennial.
Weis, K., & Borges, S. S. (1973). Victimology and rape: The case of the legitimate victim. Issues in Criminology, 8(2), 71–115.
White, J. W., Donat, P. N., & Humphrey, J. A. (1995). An examination of the attitudes underlying sexual coercion among acquaintances. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality, 8, 27–47. https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v08n01_03
Wilson, L. C., & Miller, K. E. (2016). Meta-analysis of the prevalence of unacknowledged rape. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 17, 149–159. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015576391
Young, B., Desmarais, S. L., Baldwin, J. A., & Chandler, R. (2017). Sexual coercion practices among undergraduate male recreational athletes, intercollegiate athletes, and non-athletes. Violence Against Women, 23, 795–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801216651339
Zimbardo, P. (2007/2008). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York, NY: Random House.
Zydervelt, S., Zajac, R., Kaladelfos, A., & Westera, N. (2017). Lawyers’ strategies for cross-examining rape complainants: Have we moved beyond the 1950s? British Journal of Criminology, 57, 551–569.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ryan, K.M. (2019). Rape Mythology and Victim Blaming as a Social Construct. In: O’Donohue, W.T., Schewe, P.A. (eds) Handbook of Sexual Assault and Sexual Assault Prevention. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_9
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23645-8_9
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-23644-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-23645-8
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)