Abstract
The suboptimal productivity in cocoa farmers’ fields, particularly those of small-holders who produce over 80% of the global supply, and the demand for cocoa that meets stringent quality and flavor criteria necessitate enhanced breeding methods and outcomes. Progress in cacao breeding has been hindered by a long-generation cycle, limitations in land availability for large-scale breeding trials, and challenging abiotic and biotic stress factors, including several major diseases. Cacao tends to be outbreeding and cocoa production is often reduced by the incompatibility status of planting material and pollination inefficiency. The complex breeding mechanisms in cacao and difficulty in predicting the performance of promising selections as parents also pose challenges to breeders. Reciprocal recurrent selection schemes have been most successful to date. The advent of breeding with genomics and the unravelling of the cacao genome portend unprecedented advancements in cocoa breeding. This chapter explores the past, present and future prospects of cacao breeding, and describes how the use of traditional breeding allied with molecular and genomic approaches can empower cocoa breeders to meet the need for improved planting material with high productivity and yield efficiency, disease resistance, climate change adaptations, nutraceutical value and superior flavor and quality attributes.
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Appendices
Appendices
1.1 Appendix I: Some of the Most Widely Used Clones in Cacao Breeding and Others with Multiple Superior Traits
Cacao accession | Traditional classification | Pod Index1 (assessed in Trinidad) | Disease resistance and other favorable trait | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|
IMC 67 | UAF (Iquitos) | 20.0 | Resistance to witches’ broom disease (WB), cocoa swollen shoot virus (CSSV) and Ceratocystis wilt, good yield potentialBE | Utilized at 34 locations (ICGD online)T |
SCA 6 | UAF (Contamana) | 43.5 | Tolerance to WB (widely); produces many fruits per tree | Utilized at 30 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 1 | Trinitario | 19.9 | Resistance to black pod disease (BP) and WB E P | Utilized in 29 locations (ICGD online) |
Pod resistance to WBD L | ||||
Hard pod wall, large bean weight, favorable yield potentialBe | ||||
ICS 6 | Trinitario | 17.5 | Large bean weight, favorable yield potential, potentially tolerant to Ceratocystis wilt | Utilized at 26 locations (ICGD online) |
SCA 12 | UAF (Contamana) | 31.0 | Resistance to WB | Utilized at 26 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 95 | Trinitario | 22.0 | Fair yield potential, adaptable, tolerance to frosty Pod (FP), tolerance to vascular streak dieback (VSD) | Utilized at 25 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 667 | Trinitario | 28.0 | Resistance to VSD | Utilized at 24 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 676 | Trinitario | 17.0 | Large bean weight, favorable yield potential (Trinidad and Tobago, Malaysia) | Utilized at 24 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 100 | Trinitario | 19.0 | Large bean weight, favorable yield potential, Nicaraguan Criollo pedigree | Utilized at 24 locations (ICGD online) |
SPA 9 | Unclassified | 29.3 | BP resistance | Utilized at 23 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 221 | Trinitario | 17.0 | Favorable yield potential, bean size and weight | Utilized at 23 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 39 | Trinitario | 22.1 | Favorable yield potential, Nicaraguan Criollo pedigree | Utilized at 22 locations (ICGD online) |
POUND 7 | UAF (Nanay) | 22.0 | Good general and specific combining ability for yieldMM (favored parent in Costa Rica, Ghana). Resistance to black pod | Utilized at 22 locations (ICGD online); Adomako and Adu-Ampomah (2005) |
ICS 16 | Trinitario | 17.3 | Favorable yield potential, bean size and weight | Utilized at 21 locations (ICGD online) |
PA 121 | UAF (Marañon) | 30.6 | Potential resistance to BP and WB, Favorable yield per hectare, used in breeding in Brazil | Utilized at 21 locations (ICGD online); Bekele et al. (2008b) |
CC 10 | Unclassified | 14.7 | Highly favorable yield potential, bean weight and size | Utilized at 20 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 60 | Trinitario | 16.5 | Pod resistance to WBD, favorable yield potential and bean size and weight | Utilized at 20 locations (ICGD online) |
GS 36 | Trinitario | 23.2 | Fair yield potential, bean size and weight | Utilized at 20 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 40 | Trinitario | 20.8 | Fair yield potential, Nicaraguan Criollo pedigree | Utilized at 19 locations (ICGD online)T |
UF 613 | Trinitario | 26.9 | Moderately fair yield potential, potential resistance to BP, Criollo pedigree | Utilized at 18 locations (ICGD online) |
SIAL 93 | LAF | 24.8 | Fair yield potential | Utilized at 18 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 8 | Trinitario | 19.8 | Favorable yield potential, good bean weight and size | Utilized at 18 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 89 | Trinitario | 28.3 | Good combining ability | Utilized at 17 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 705 | Trinitario | – | Fair yield potential (Costa Rica) | Utilized at 16 locations (ICGD online) |
CC 11 | Unclassified | – | Favorable yield potential (Malaysia) | Utilized at 16 locations (ICGD online) |
SCA 9 | UAF (Contamana) | 19.7 | Resistance to VSDB, favorable yield potential | Utilized at 16 locations (ICGD online) |
PA 35 | UAF (Marañon) | – | Fair yield potential, bean weight (Malaysia) | Utilized at 16 locations (ICGD online) |
NA 33 | UAF (Nanay) | 39.8 | Moderate tolerance to VSD (Malaysia), BP (Brazil) and CSSV | Utilized at 16 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 11 | Trinitario | 13.9 | Excellent yield potential, bean size and weight, tolerant to VSD (Malaysia) | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
NA 32 | UAF (Nanay) | 30.6 | Tolerant to CSSV, limited tolerance to BP (Togo) | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
GS 29 | Trinitario | 17.6 | Favorable yield potential, bean weight and size | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 29 | Trinitario | 19.3 | Favorable yield potential | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
CATONGO | Amelonado | 35.6 | Homozygous mutant | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online); Clément et al. (2003a, b) |
PA 150 | UAF (Marañon) | 27.4 | Resistance to BPIL, good combining ability | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online); Adomako and Adu-Ampomah (2005), Freeman (1982), and Paulin et al. (1994) |
IMC 47 | UAF (Iquitos) | 27.4 | Potential resistance to BP and WB and tolerance to CSSV | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
PA 107 | UAF (Marañon) | 30.3 | Favorable butterfat content (more than 55%) | Utilized at 15 locations (ICGD online) |
RIM 2[MEX] | Criollo/Trinitario | 39.7 | Good bean size, potential moderate and resistance to BP | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
RIM 10[MEX] | Criollo/Trinitario | – | Good bean size, yield potential (Mexico) | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
POUND 10 | UAF (Nanay) | 42 | Good butterfat content (Malaysia), potential resistance to CSSV (Ghana) | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
CAS 1 | LAF | 44.1 | Fair bean size, potential tolerance to BP (Costa Rica) | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online)T |
IMC 14 | UAF (Iquitos) | 25.2 | Fair yield potential, butterfat content | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 98 | Trinitario | 30.5 | Potential resistance to WB | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
EET 400 | UAF (Curaray) | 19.8 | Potential WB and Ceratocystis wilt resistance, favorable yield potential | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
NA 34 | UAF (Nanay) | 26 | Potential resistance to CSSV | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
UF 168 | Trinitario | 23.8 | Fair yield potential, good bean size (Costa Rica, Malaysia) | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
PA 13 | UAF (Marañon) | 31.3 | Potential BP resistance (Côte d’Ivoire, Mexico, Costa Rica) | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
BE 10 | LAF (Amelonado) | 26.8 | Fair yield potential, butterfat content | Utilized at 14 locations (ICGD online) |
RIM 117[MEX] | Criollo/Trinitario | 18.7 | Favorable yield potential (Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago), good bean size | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 45 | Trinitario | 21.2 | Potential WB and BP resistance, fair yield potential, bean size | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
CC 41 | Unclassified (UF 276 × unclassified) | 28.0 | Tolerant to WB (Brazil) | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
CC 38 | Unclassified (UF 276 × MATINA?) | 26.1 | Fair yield potential (Costa Rica, Malaysia) | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
PA 7 | UAF (Marañon) | Moderate resistance to BP, good combining ability, tolerance to CSSV (Ghana), Good female parent in crosses designed for Ceratocystis control in Bahia, Brazil | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online); Bekele et al. (2008b); Adomako and Adu-Ampomah (2005). | |
PA 56 | UAF (Marañon) | 32 | Good combining ability for wet seed weight (Trinidad and Tobago) | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 84 | Trinitario | 28.3 | Fair yield potential, bean weight (Malaysia) | Utilized at 13 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 68 | Trinitario | 15.9 | Favorable yield potential, bean size and weight | Bekele et al. (2009) |
UF 12 | Trinitario | 14.8 | Favorable yield potential, bean size and weight, pod resistance to BPI | Utilized at 8 locations (ICGD online) |
JA 5/31 | Refractario | 16.4 | Favorable yield potential | Iwaro et al. (2003) |
ICS 5 | Trinitario | 16.9 | Favorable yield potential, bean weight and size | Bekele et al. (2014) |
IMC 97 | UAF (Iquitos) | 17.0 | Favorable yield potential, fair bean size | Iwaro et al. (2003) |
Silecia 8 (EET 395) | Trinitario | 17.4 | Favorable yield potential, bean size | Bekele et al. (2006) |
EET 59[ECU] | Unclassified | 17.61 | Favorable yield potential, resistance to BPD E I P | Iwaro et al. (2003); Utilized at 7 locations (ICGD online) |
POUND 18 | UAF | 17.7 | Resistant to Ceratocystis fimbriata, potential resistance to BP, WP, favorable yield potential (many beans) | |
ICS 85 | Trinitario | 18.1 | Favorable yield potential, pod resistance to WBD | Iwaro et al. (2003) |
ICS 43 | Trinitario | 18.9 | Fair yield potential, good bean weight, Nicaraguan Criollo pedigree | Utilized at 8 locations (ICGD online)T |
ICS 75 | Trinitario | 19.07 | Fair yield potential, bean weight and size | Utilized at 12 locations (ICGD online)T |
IMC 10 | UAF (Iquitos) | 19.0 | Favorable yield potential | Utilized at 8 locations (ICGD online) |
EET 272 | Unclassified: Forastero ‘Amarillo’ type × Unclassified | 25.0 | Potential resistance to BP, WB, Ceratocystis wilt, fair yield potential | Utilized at 11 locations (ICGD online) |
IMC 78 | Iquitos | 23.0 | Fair yield potential, potential resistance to WB and CSSV | Utilized at 7 locations (ICGD online); Clément et al. (2003a, b) |
ICS 48 | Trinitario | 20.0 | Fair yield potential, bean weight and size | Utilized at 10 locations (ICGD online) |
EET 399 | Unclassified: Silecia 1 × unclassified | 24.4 | Tolerance to VSD, moderate resistance to BPM | Utilized at 12 locations (ICGD online) |
ICS 10 | Trinitario | 21.0 | Moderate resistance to FP, potential resistance to BP, flower and cushion resistance to WBD, good yield potential | Ducamp (1994) |
1.2 Appendix II: Listing of Major Cacao Research Institutes
Institute | Acronym | Location | Specialization | Contact |
Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau | CEPEC | Brazil | Conservation, genetic improvement, screening for yield, disease resistance, quality, gene discovery. | Dr. Jose Luis Pires joseluis@cepec.gov.br |
The Executive Commission for the Cocoa Farming Plan | CEPLAC | Brazil | Genetic diversity enrichment, conservation, improvement for yield, disease and pest resistance etc. Physiology, nutrient studies, heavy metal research, application of biotechnology for gene discovery, breeding with genomics . | Dr. Uilson López uvlopesbr@gmail.com |
Institut of Agricultural Research for Development | IRAD | Cameroun | Partners with CIRAD, France on genetic improvement for disease and pest resistance, yield and agroforestry | Dr. Mousseni Efombagn, efombagn@yahoo.fr |
Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria | CCIA | Colombia | Conservation, genetic improvement, genomics | atencionalcliente@corpoica.org.co |
Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center | CATIE | Costa Rica | Conservation, genetic improvement for yield, disease resistance (especially for Frosty Pod), quality etc., with the application of biotechnology | Dr. Rolando Cerda. rcerda@catie.ac.cr; |
Centre national de recherche agronomique | CNRA | Côte d’Ivoire | Genetic improvement for yield, productivity disease control through conventional methods and the application of molecular tools | Dr. Desire Pokou pokoudesire@yahoo.fr; Tahi Gnion Mathias tahi_mathias(at)yahoo.fr |
Instituto Dominicano de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y Forestales | INDIAF | Dominican Republic | Conservation, genetic improvement, quality improvement | Ms. Marisol Ventura López mventura(at)idiaf.gov.do |
Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias | INIAP | Ecuador | Conservation, genetic improvement, diversity studies, disease control, flavor and quality, cadmium remediation, agroforestry | Dr. Rey Gastón Loor rey.loor@iniap.gob.ec; Freddy Amores freddy.amores(at)iniap.gob.ec |
Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement | CIRAD | France | Genomics, genetic improvement and breeding, control of pests and diseases, agronomy, physiology, cropping systems, agroforestry, postharvest processing | Dr. Christian Cilas christian.cilas@cirad.fr; Dr. Claire Lanaud claire.lanaud@cirad.fr |
Cocoa research Institute of Ghana | CRIG | Ghana | Genetic improvement, breeding, agronomy, physiology, biochemistry, entomology, pathology, soil science, value-added product development | Dr. Francis Kwame Padi padifrancis@yahoo.co.uk |
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute | CPCRI | India | Conservation, genetic improvement, mixed cropping | Dr. Elain Apshara elain_apshara(at)yahoo.co.in |
Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute | ICCI | Indonesia | Conservation, genetic improvement, | Dr. Eben Haeser eben.haeser@londonsumatra.com |
Malaysian Cocoa Board | MCB | Malaysia | Conservation, genetic improvement, molecular studies | Dr. Haya Ramba hayaramba(at)koko.gov.my |
Cocoa Research Institute of Nigeria | CRIN | Nigeria | Genetic improvement, disease and control, Value-added product development | Dr. Daniel Adewale d.adewale(at)gmail.com or dadewale(at)cgiar.org |
Cocoa and Coconut Institute | CCI | Papua New Guinea | Conservation, genetic improvement | Dr. James Butubu butubu(at)yahoo.com.au |
Instituto de Cultivos Tropicales | ICT | Perú | Germplasm collection, conservation, genetic improvement for pest and disease resistance and quality, cadmium remediation and heavy metal studies | Dr. Enrique Arevalo-Gardini e.arevalo@ict-peru.org; e.arevalo.ict@terra.com.pe; enriquearevaloga@gmail.com |
Cocoa Research Centre | CRC | Trinidad and Tobago | Conservation, germplasm enhancement, characterization, evaluation, utilization of cocoa genetic resources, research on diversity, genomics, disease control, flavor and quality studies, cadmium uptake and remediation | Prof. Pathmanathan Umaharan pathmanathan.umaharan@sta.uwi.edu |
International Cocoa Quarantine Centre, University of Reading | ICQC, R | United Kingdom | Provision of intermediate quarantine in a temperate country for the safe movement of cacao germplasm between producing countries | Dr. Andrew Daymond a.j.daymond(at)reading.ac.uk |
Penn State University | PSU | USA | Plant development, genetic transformation, propagation, engineering, functional genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, regulation of gene expression, plant defense responses, starch biosynthesis | Prof. Mark Guiltinan mjg9@psu.edu Dr. Siela Maximova snm104@psu.edu |
United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Tropical Agriculture Research Station | USDA/ARS | USA and Mayaguez, Puerto Rico (PR) | Conservation, genetic improvement, genomics, marker-assisted selection, diversity studies, genomics-assisted breeding | Dr. Ricardo Goyenaga Ricardo.Goenaga@ARS.USDA.GOV Dr. Dapeng Zhang dapeng.zhang@ars.usda.gov; Dr. Lyndel Meinhart Lyndel.Meinhardt@ars.usda.gov; Dr. Osman Guitterez osman.gutierrez@ars.usda.gov |
Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas | INIA | Venezuela | Rescue and conservation of genetic resources, particularly Criollos, characterisation, genetic improvement including for disease resistance, flavor and quality | Dr. Alvaro Gómez Morales Email: Agomez153(at)gmail.com |
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Bekele, F., Phillips-Mora, W. (2019). Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) Breeding. In: Al-Khayri, J., Jain, S., Johnson, D. (eds) Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Industrial and Food Crops. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23265-8_12
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