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From Urban Legends to Political Fact-Checking pp 41–76Cite as

Urban Legends and Rumors Concerning the September 11 Attacks

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Abstract

This chapter provides an extended case study of the legends and rumors surrounding the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001. The chapter draws upon existing scholarship about the cultural meaning of urban legends to explain how these legends are coping mechanisms for dealing with a complex, dangerous world in which the rules of life are changed. Based on a detailed analysis of the hundreds of stories about 9/11 on snopes and the thousands of posting on alt.folklore.urban about 9/11, the authors categorize the many types of urban legends associated with this event and give illustrations of each. The chapter also considers the role of conspiracy theories associated with these terrorist attacks and in particular looks at the 9/11 Truth Movement, which denies the accepted story of what happened on September 11. This case study enables us to look in depth at the working style used by snopes. The response on AFU to the terrorist attacks is compared to the response on two other Usenet newsgroups. The chapter also looks in particular at mercantile legends and how companies are harmed by urban legends – with a particular look at one restaurant, The Sheikh in suburban Detroit, which was harmed by false claims that its Arab workers celebrated the terrorist attacks. While most urban legends are textual, the chapter closes with a discussion of visual versions using photoshopping techniques.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    On the writings of bin Laden, see Ibrahim (2007).

  2. 2.

    For overall information on the terrorist attacks, see the official government report (Kean (2011)) as well as Bergen (2011); and Wright (2006); on the terror associated with the attacks, see Pyszczynski et al. (2003); on the relationship between political acts and the psychology of terror, see Huddy and Feldman (2011); and Morgan (2009); on memorialization and grieving, see Aronson (2016); Linenthal et al. (2013); Laqueur (2015); and Rosenblatt (2015); and on reactions to 9/11 as a cultural phenomenon, see Melnick (2009). Also see the Library of Congress September 11, 2001 Web Archive, which includes the snopes.com collection and The Avalon Project of the Yale Law School. For personal accounts of those involved in the attacks, see DiMarco (2007); Dwyer and Flynn (2004); and Smith (2003). For fiction inspired by the attacks, see DeLillo (2008); Foer (2006); and Waldman (2011); and for an overview of literature since 9/11 see Gray (2011).

  3. 3.

    Degh (2001), as quoted in Smith et al. (2010). Also see Gerould (1908/2000).

  4. 4.

    Smith et al. (2010). Also see Lindahl (2009) on the healing power of folklore images.

  5. 5.

    One might question how online behavior and offline behavior in reaction to the 9/11 attacks compared. Dutta-Bergman (2006) argues that there was strong channel complementarity: “individuals who posted their thoughts in online communities were significantly more likely to attend a meeting to discuss the attacks, to volunteer in relief efforts, to write about their views to a newspaper or other news organization, and to sign a petition regarding the attacks as compared to those other individuals who did not post their thoughts in online communities. No significant differences were found in the realm of attending religious services or donating blood. This may be a reflection of the noncommunicative nature of these activities…. The common theme that joins online and offline community participation is the individual’s orientation toward participating in the community with respect to an important crisis.”

  6. 6.

    This categorical scheme of 9/11 legends emerged from our analysis of the snopes.com 9/11 archive, but also see Heimbaugh (2001).

  7. 7.

    Goldstein (2009). Also see Behe (1988).

  8. 8.

    Bonaparte (1947), as quoted in Goldstein (2009).

  9. 9.

    On the healing power of art and other creative responses to the 9/11 attacks, see Zeitlin and Harlow (2001). On how memorializing online differed from memorializing in person, see Foot et al. (2005). On memorialization at the Pentagon , see Greenspan (2003) and Yocom (2006).

  10. 10.

    See Jackson (2005) for an interesting account of how the Hallmark company remained faithful to its corporate values in giving psychological aid after the 9/11 attacks.

  11. 11.

    Time had previously made this award to Hitler and Stalin, so it was clearly about people who changed the world but not necessarily for the better; however, under intense pressure, Time deciding not to give the award to Osama, in the end calling him a run-of-the-mill terrorist.

  12. 12.

    See, for example, Cortada and Aspray (2019).

  13. 13.

    On the history of conspiracy theories in American political thought, see a famous essay, Hofstadter (1964). For a contemporary account, see Hagen (2011).

  14. 14.

    On the paranormal related to another disaster, the sinking of the Titanic , see Stevenson (1960, 1965).

  15. 15.

    Wood and Douglas (2013). Emphasis in original. See their literature review for details about this scholarship.

  16. 16.

    For an ethnography of the 9/11 Truth Movement , see Ellefritz (2014).

  17. 17.

    See, e.g., Griffin (2004a, b, 2008, 2009, 2011).

  18. 18.

    For an account of the impact of 9/11 on media coverage of terrorism, see Powell (2011).

  19. 19.

    When asked why AFU members would want to address 9/11 rumors when the mandate of the group was to debunk urban legends, long-time AFU member Paul Tomblin (2018) responded: “I think AFU saw it saw it as part of our arena to find the truth behind those, as well as behind the vanishing hitchhiker, the baby train, whatever the famous urban legends were. I mean, it was all part of the spectrum of truth, or finding truth.” Tomblin, Paul (2018) (August 2). Oral history conducted by Alexis de Coning for this project.

  20. 20.

    The entire thread can be read on Google Groups – alt.folklore.urban .

  21. 21.

    David Emery , “Did a WTC Leaseholder Buy Terrorism Insurance Just Before 9/11? (originally entitled Rubble Indemnity) http://www.snopes.com/wtc-terrorism-insurance/ published 14 September 2016, updated 11 September 2018. All of the URLs referenced in this section were originally accessed in a period of a few days in mid-June 2017 and were revisited in November 2018.

  22. 22.

    David Mikkelson , September 11 Adultery Revelation (originally published as Alibi Bye) http://www.snopes.com/rumors/adultery.asp published 5 October 2001, updated 11 September 2018.

  23. 23.

    David Mikkelson original (25 March 2015), updated by Barbara Mikkelson (9 August 2015), “Angry Muslim Confronts Cashier Over Flag Pin” http://www.snopes.com/rumors/lapelpin.asp

  24. 24.

    Mikkelson and Mikkelson, Angry Muslim Confronts Cashier Over Flag Pin.

  25. 25.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Warning From Terrorist, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/warning.asp originally published 8 January 2006, update 11 December 2015.

  26. 26.

    David Mikkelson, Women Killed By Poisoned Perfume Samples?, originally published 3 November 2001, updated 4 June 2017, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/perfume.asp

  27. 27.

    David Mikkelson, Women Killed By Poisoned Perfume Samples?

  28. 28.

    David Mikkelson, Billy Graham ’s Daughter’s Speech, originally published 3 October 2001, updated 9 March 2018 (http://www.snopes.com/rumors/wheregod.asp)

  29. 29.

    David Mikkelson, Billy Graham’s Daughter’s Speech

  30. 30.

    For a collection of 9/11 jokes, see Ooze.com (2006). For reflections on the value of dark humor, see Gournelos and Greene (2011); Brottman (2012); Kuipers (2005); and Ellis (2002). On 9/11 and the popular culture of comics, see Dittmer (2005); and Peitz (2013).

  31. 31.

    David Mikkelson , September 11 Adultery Revelation.

  32. 32.

    Barbara Mikkelson , Bodies in Airplane Seats Found, published 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/strapped.asp

  33. 33.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Bodies in Airplane Seats Found.

  34. 34.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Kidney Disease Rumor, 1 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/kidney.asp

  35. 35.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Kidney Disease Rumor.

  36. 36.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama Bin Laden’s Body Washes Ashore, updated 6 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/ashore.asp

  37. 37.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama Bin Laden’s Body Washes Ashore.

  38. 38.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Owns Snapple Rumor, updated 21 April 2008. http://www.snopes.com/rumors/snapple.asp

  39. 39.

    As Barbara Mikkelson explains, the Middle Eastern distribution rights to Snapple were owned at the time of 9/11 by the Binladen Group, which is a part of Osama’s extremely large family, but he apparently had no connection to this company; and, in any event, Cadbury Schweppes, which owns Snapple, severed its relationship with the Binladen Group soon after 9/11.

  40. 40.

    David Mikkelson, General Pershing on How to Stop Islamic Terrorists (originally appearing as “Pershing the Thought”, originally published 31 October 2001, updated 17 August 2017, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/pershing.asp

  41. 41.

    David Mikkelson, General Pershing on How to Stop Islamic Terrorists.

  42. 42.

    David Mikkelson, University Peaceniks, published 9 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/egghead.asp

  43. 43.

    David Mikkelson, University Peaceniks.

  44. 44.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden in Utah, last updated 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/utah.asp

  45. 45.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden in Utah.

  46. 46.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Osama bin Laden Captured, last updated 1 May 2011, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/captured.asp

  47. 47.

    David Mikkelson, “An Ode to America”, originally published 12 October 2001, updated 3 August 2018, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/soapbox/nistorescu.asp

  48. 48.

    Barbara Mikkelson, “SaucyJack Letter”, 8 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/freezing.asp

  49. 49.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor, updated 6 December 2005, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/dunkin.asp

  50. 50.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor.

  51. 51.

    For an empirical study of possible insider trading on the stock market just prior to the 9/11 attacks, see Wong et al. (2011). They argue that there was unusual trading at this time.

  52. 52.

    Barbara Mikkelson, No Taxis at WTC, last updated 21 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/taxi.asp

  53. 53.

    Barbara Mikkkelson, Oct. 26 Terrorist Attack on Los Angeles Rumor, updated 7 April 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/oct26.asp.

  54. 54.

    Barbara Mikkkelson, Oct. 26 Terrorist Attack on Los Angeles Rumor.

  55. 55.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Post 9/11 Baby Boom, updated 7 March 2008, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/babyboom.asp

  56. 56.

    Barbara Mikkelson, Post 9/11 Baby Boom.

  57. 57.

    soc.culture.scottish (2001). Discussion thread: “New York Tragedy.” Archived at http://groups.google.com

  58. 58.

    rec.motorcycles.harley (2001). Discussion thread: “OT: Opinions on what US should do?” http://groups.google.com

  59. 59.

    Alt.folklore.urban , archived at Google Groups, https://groups.google.com/forum/#!forum/alt.folklore.urban, the thread is entitled “Apology”, ending September 15, 2001. In subsequent endnotes, we simply give the name and the month and day of the thread (All are from year 2001.). There are search tools on Google Groups that help one to find the appropriate thread.

  60. 60.

    “Apology”, thread completed September 15.

  61. 61.

    “Apology”, thread completed September 15.

  62. 62.

    “Enemies”, thread completed 9/17.

  63. 63.

    “Enemies”, thread completed 9/17.

  64. 64.

    “Enemies”, thread completed 9/17.

  65. 65.

    “Enemies”, thread completed 9/17.

  66. 66.

    “Proposal for the Group”, thread completed 9/17.

  67. 67.

    “Proposal for the Group”, thread completed 9/17.

  68. 68.

    “BOJJ, etc”, thread completed 9/29.

  69. 69.

    “BOJJ, etc”, thread completed 9/29.

  70. 70.

    “Rural Reality: Flight 93 Shot Down,” thread completed 10/4.

  71. 71.

    “Reflections on a date which will live in infamy”, thread ending 9/24.

  72. 72.

    “Rural Reality,” thread completed 10/4.

  73. 73.

    “Rural Reality,” thread completed 10/4.

  74. 74.

    “Eleven Eleven,” thread completed 10/3.

  75. 75.

    “Clear Channel will protect your tender sensibilities,” thread completed 10/4.

  76. 76.

    “Stolen Verizon Trucks: Latest hoax/legend,” thread completed 10/6.

  77. 77.

    “Nostradamus Folklore,” thread completed 9/24.

  78. 78.

    Barbara Mikkelson , Dunkin Donuts ‘Celebrating Employees’ Rumor.

  79. 79.

    David Mikkelson , Did Budweiser Pull Their Product from a Store Where Arabs Celebrated the 9/11 Attacks?, originally published as “This Bud’s Not for You”, originally published 18 October 2001, updated 10 September 2018, http://www.snopes.com/rumors/budweiser.asp

  80. 80.

    Smith et al. (2010). Coca-Cola has long been the target of various rumors and urban legends, most frequently that it has bottled rodents in its products. See Cortada and Aspray (2019).

  81. 81.

    Frank (2004). For another thoughtful essay about the issues involved in archiving visual materials related to 9/11, see Hathaway (2005). Hathaway writes about the meaning of the photoshops discussed in this section and other visual responses to 9/11 that circulated online after the attacks: “Is it possible, I wondered, to come to any conclusions about the meaning of a piece of electronic lore when it arrives in your inbox with little, if any, introduction by the sender, and when the usual performance cues or other contextual information that might hint at the sender’s motivation are absent? Do we receive e-lore in a contextual vacuum that the recipient must then “fill in” in order to make sense of the message? How do pre-existing contexts and identity markers affect the way we receive and interpret these items?” Hathaway also notes that while it may seem that textual jokes will have more limited geographic play because of linguistic constraints, somewhat surprisingly, she found with showing American versions of 9/11 photoshops to German students, that “visual jokes evoke a broader range of connotations and interpretations.”

  82. 82.

    See the Wikipedia article on Tourist Guy to understand the history and spread of this Internet meme.

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  1. Department of Information Science, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, USA

    William Aspray

  2. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    James W. Cortada

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Aspray, W., Cortada, J.W. (2019). Urban Legends and Rumors Concerning the September 11 Attacks. In: From Urban Legends to Political Fact-Checking. History of Computing. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22952-8_3

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22952-8_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-22951-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-22952-8

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

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