Abstract
This chapter details the first and seventh/eighth centuries in terms of the translation movement, and more precisely, the translation movement in the Umayyad era. The translation movement was in its early stages and limited in scope. The reason for this is that those who were responsible for this movement were very few in number. Prince Khālid ibn Yazı̄d ibn Mu‘āwiya, who was mentioned in the primary sources as one of the first interested scholars of the translation movement and in its affairs, was one of the few patrons. Another Umayyad figure who shared the same interest in this movement among the successors of this era was Caliph ‘Umar ibn ‘Abdul ‘Aziz, who got some medical works translated for him in particular. As for the conditions of the translation movement in the second/eighth century, and more precisely, the translation movement in the time of the two Caliphs al-Manṣūr and al-Rashı̄d, it had reached a stage of development and progress. Many books were translated by multiple translators. The translation movement from the scientific point of view in the time of al-Rashı̄d was more mature than at the time of al-Manṣūr, which led to the greatest stages of development in the third/ninth century.
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- 1.
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Ibn Qutaybah ’Abdullāh ibn Muslim (d. 889/275). al-Ma‘ārif ed. Muḥammad Ismā‘īl ‘Abdullah al-Ṣāwī Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1969, p. 352.
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- 13.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 544.
- 14.
Maẓhar Jalāl (1960). Ma’āthir al-‘Arab ‘alā al-Ḥaḍārah al-Urubbiyyah Cairo: Maktabat al-Anglū al-Miṣriyyah, pp. 146–147; Kharbūṭalī ‘Alī Ḥusnī (1975). al-Ḥaḍārah al-‘Arabiyya al-Islāmiyya Cairo: Maktabat al-Khānjī, p. 285.
- 15.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 545.
- 16.
Ibn Khallikān, Abū al-‘Abbās Shams al-Dīn (d. 680/1282). Wafayyāt al-A’yān wa-Anbā’ Abnā’ al-Zamān Ed. Iḥsān ‘Abbās, vol. 2: 224–226.
- 17.
Holmyard Eric John (1937). Makers of Chemistry, pp. 43–44.
- 18.
Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Raḥman ibn Muḥammad (d. 808/1406). Introduction to Ibn Khaldoun tr. Rami Touqan Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 2016, p. 648; The other example goes back to the ninth/fifteenth century and the position of Ibn Khaldūn (d. 808/1406), who launched a relentless war on alchemists. He described Jābir ibn Ḥayyān as the great magician, and said this about al-Majrīṭī (d. 398/1008), a leading figure among the people of Andalusia in teaching and sorcery. See Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Raḥman ibn Muḥammad (d. 808/1406). Muqaddamat Ibn Khaldūn, p. 497, and p. 500. Ibn Khaldūn issued his view on this science, saying that it was wrong to pretend that this was a natural craft. When discussing the views of Khalīl ibn Aybak al-Ṣafadī and Ibn Khaldūn, the first view does not require a response because it was one of humour and irony. As for Ibn Khaldūn’s view, it was a serious and openly stated position. In explaining this phenomenon, we see it first as the inherited traditional view of this science, which was accepted at the beginning of the Islamic chemical renaissance, but not after the time of Ibn Khaldūn for centuries. Second, Ibn Khaldūn’s lack of knowledge of the truth of this science is perhaps the first reason Ibn Khaldūn closed his mind to the possibility of modifying that vision. See ‘Abd al-Raḥman ibn Muḥammad (d. 808/1406). Muqaddamat Ibn Khaldūn, p. 513; and George Qanawātī, “al-Kīmiyā’ al-‘Arabiyyah”, in Rushdī Rāshid (2005). Mawsū‘at Tārīkh al-‘Ulūm al-‘Arabiyyah, vol. III., pp. 1123–1126.
- 19.
In both of his works, Farūkh ‘Umar (1981). Tārīkh al-‘Ulūm ‘ind al-‘Arab, p. 242; Farūkh ‘Umar (1985). ‘Abqariyat al-‘Arab fī al-‘Ilm wa-l-Falsafah, p. 194.
- 20.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 544; also in al-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 911/1505). Ṣawn al-Manṭiq wa-l-Kalām ‘an Fann al- Manṭiq wa-l-Kalām, p. 9.
- 21.
Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, pp. 209–210.
- 22.
See Nash’at al-Ḥamārinah (1997). “Kunnāsh Ya‘qūb al-Kushkarī fī al-Ṭibb,” al-Turāth al-‘Arabī issue no. 67, 1 April 1997: 113–128.
- 23.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 467; Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, p. 209; Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, pp. 112–113; al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Akhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 242–244; Ibn al-‘Ibrī, Gregorias al-Malṭī (d. 685/1286). Mukhtaṣar Tārīkh al-Duwal, p. 192; Gutas, Dimitri (1998). Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early Abbasid Society (2nd-4th/8th–10th centuries), p. 24.
- 24.
Aḥmad Amīn (1969). Fajr al-Islam: yabḥath ‘an al-Ḥayāh al-‘Aqliyyah fī Ṣadr al-Islam ’ilā-Akhir al-Dawlah al-Umawiyyah, pp. 164–165.
- 25.
Marḥabā Muḥammad ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (2000). Min al-Falsafah al-Yūnāniyyah ’ilā al-Falsafah al-Islāmiyyah, p. 293.
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Abū Rayyān Muḥammad (1984). Tārīkh al-Fikr al-Falsafī: al-Falsafah al-Yūnāniyyah Alexandria: Dār al-Ma‘rifah al-Jāmi‘iyyah, vol. 1: 54.
- 27.
al-Mas‘ūdī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 345/956), Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘ādin al-Jawhar Cairo: Maṭba‘at al-Sa‘ādah, 1965, vol. 4: 241–242.
- 28.
Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 17.
- 29.
Khuda Bakhsh Salahuddin (1929). Contribution to the History of Islamic Civilization Calcutta: Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library, vol. 1: 291.
- 30.
Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, pp. 15–17; Aḥmad Ibrāhīm Imām (1960). Tārīkh al-Falak ‘ind al-‘Arab Cairo: Maktabat al-Thaqāfah, p. 23.
- 31.
al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 205–206.
- 32.
Ibid., pp. 213–214, 216, 262, 264.
- 33.
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rīḥān Muḥammad ibn Aímad (d. 439/1048). Taḥqīq mā li-Hind min Maqūlah fī al-‘Aql aw Mardhūlah Beirut: ‘Ālam al-Kutub, 1970, p. 497.
- 34.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 430–431; Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, p. 17; Almagest of Ptolemy is a mathematical and astronomical treatise on the apparent motions of the stars and planetary paths, written by Claudius Ptolemy (c. AD 100–c. 170). One of the most influential scientific texts of all time, its geocentric model was accepted for more than 1200 years from its origin in Hellenistic Alexandria, in the medieval Byzantine and Islamic worlds, and in Western Europe through the Middle Ages and early Renaissance until Copernicus. The Almagest is the critical source of information on ancient Greek astronomy. It has also been valuable to students of mathematics because it documents the ancient Greek mathematician Hipparchus’s work, which has been lost. Hipparchus wrote about trigonometry, but because his works appear to have been lost, mathematicians use Ptolemy’s book as their source for Hipparchus’s work and ancient Greek trigonometry in general. The first translations into Arabic were made in the ninth century by Ḥunain ibn Isḥāq, with two separate efforts, one sponsored by the ‘Abbasid caliphs al-Manṣūr and al-Ma’mūn Sahl ibn Bishr is thought to be the first Arabic translator. By this time, the Syntaxis was lost in Western Europe, or only dimly remembered. Gerard of Cremona’s translation was influential as a later translation into Latin from the Arabic (finished in 1175). Gerard translated the Arabic text while working at the Toledo School of Translators, although he was unable to translate many technical terms such as the Arabic Abrachir for Hipparchus. In the twelfth century, a Spanish version was produced, which was later translated under the patronage of Alfonso X. see al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, pp. 78–80.
- 35.
Euclid’s Element is called the book of Elements, which is the simplest of what was placed for learners, and first translated from the book of the Greeks in the days of Ja‘far al-Manṣūr, and different versions according to the translators, including Ḥuanayn ibn Isḥāq, Thābit ibn Qurrah, and Yūsuf ibn al-Ḥajjāj. Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 427–428; Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 802/1401). al-Muqaddimah, pp. 485–486.
- 36.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 432.
- 37.
Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 802/1401). al-Muqaddimah, pp. 479–480.
- 38.
Zaydān, Jurjī (1997). Ṭārīkh al-Tamaddun al-Islāmī, vol. 3: 157, p. 210; likewise, Abū Rayyān Muḥammad (1984). Tārīkh al-Fikr al-Falsafī: al-Falsafah al-Yūnāniyyah, vol. 1:87–88.
- 39.
al-Mas‘ūdī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 345/956). Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘ādin al-Jawhar, vol. 4: 241.
- 40.
Boer, Tjitze J. de, (1866–1942). The History of philosophy in Islam tr. Edward R. Jones, London: Luzac & Co., 1933, p. 17.
- 41.
Kurd ‘Alī Muḥammad (1968). al-Islam wal Ḥaḍārah al-‘Arabiyyah, vol. 2: 38; as well as Muḥammad Yūsuf al-Hindī (May 1950). “Bad’ al-‘Ilāqāt al-‘Ilmiyyah bayn al-Hind wal-‘Arab,” Majalt Kuliyar al-Ādāb, Jāmi‘at al-Malik Fu’ād, issue no. 12, vol. 1: 102–103; ‘Issā Aḥmad (2001). al-Tahdhīb fīī Uṣūl al-Ta‘rīb BeirutL Dār al-Āfāq, p. 10; Mardam Khalīl (January 1949). “Athar al-Hind fī al-Thaqāfah al-‘Arabiyya,” Majalat al-Mujama‘ al-‘Ilmī al-‘Arabī, issue no. 24, vol. 1: 43–45; Tūkī Maḥmūd Ḥasan (1925). Mu‘jam al-Muṣanifīn Beirut: Maṭba‘at ṬabĀrah, vol. 1: 75.
- 42.
Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, pp. 63–64.
- 43.
Ibid.; many scholars attributed the same view such as: Ibn Kathīr, Ismā‘īl ibn ‘Umarr (d. 774/1373). al-Bidāyah wa’l-Nihāyah, vol. 9:126; Ibn Khaldūn, ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 802/1401). al-Muqaddimah, pp. 480–484; Ibn al-‘Ibrī, Gregorias al-Malṭī (d. 685/1286). Mukhtaṣar Tārīkh al-Duwal, pp. 107–111; Ibn Ṭiqṭiqā, Muḥammad ibn ‘Alī ibn Ṭabāṭabā (d. 708/1309). al-Fakhrī fī al-Ādāb al-Sulṭāniyya wal-Duwal al-Islāmiyyah Beirut: Dār Beirut li-l-Ṭibā‘ah, 1980, p. 159.
- 44.
al-Mas‘ūdī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 345/956). Murūj al-Dhahab wa-Ma‘ādin al-Jawhar, vol. 4:241–242.
- 45.
al-Suyūṭī, Jalāl al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 911/1505). Tārīkh al-Khulafā’ ed. Muḥyī al-Dīn ‘Abd al-Ḥamīd Beirut: al-Maktabah al-‘Aîriyyah, 2007, p. 234; aslo Ibn al-Athīr, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī ibn Abū al-Karam Muḥammad (d. 629/1232). al-Kāmil fī al-Tārīkh, Beirut: Dār al-Kitāb al-‘Arabī, 1985, vol. 6: 27.
- 46.
al-Bīrūnī, Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aímad (d. 439/1048). Taḥqīq mā li-Hind min Maqūlah fī al-‘Aql aw Mardhūlah, pp. 351–352.
- 47.
Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 66; al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 270.
- 48.
Philip Hitti (1951). History of Syria: including Lebanon and Palestine London: Macmillan, 1951, Tārīkh Sūriyā, wa Libnān wa Falisṭīn, tr. George Ḥadād, ‘Abd al-Karīm Réfiq Beirut: Dār al-Thaqāfah, 1982, vol. 1: 184–185.
- 49.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, pp. 189–190; For details of the life and effects of this author and translator, see: al-Jāḥiẓ, Abū ‘Uthmān ‘Amr ibn Baḥr (d. 255/869). Rasā’il al-Jāḥiz ed. ‘Abd al-Salām Muḥammad Hārūn Cairo: Maktabat al-Khānjī, 1979, vol. 2: 192–202; Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 17; al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 220; Ibn Khallikān, Abū al-‘Abbās Shams al-Dīn (d. 680/1282). Wafayyāt al-A’yān wa-Anbā’ Abnā’ al-Zamān, vol. 2:152–154; al-Qalqashandī, Aḥmad ibn ‘Alī (d. 821/1418). Ṣubḥ al-A‘shā fī Ṣina‘at al-Inhsā, vol. 1:445–446; ‘Azzām ‘Abd al-Wahāb (1941). Kalīlah wa Dimnah Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, p. 14; al-Fākhūrī Ḥānā (1957). Ibn al-Muqaffā‘ Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, pp. 15–16; al-Kharasānī Muḥammad Ghafrānī (1965). ‘Abdullah Ibn al-Muqafā‘ Cairo: Dār al-Qawmiyyah lil-Ṭibā‘ah, p. 203; Aḥmed Amīn (1956). Ẓuhr al-Islām, Beirut: vol 2: 125; O’Leary De Lacy (1958). Arabic Thought and Its place in History, pp. 107–108; Philip Hitti (1980). Makers of Arab History/Ṣāni‘ū al-Tārīkh al-‘Arabī tr. Anīs Frayḥah, Maḥmūd Zāyid Beirut: Dār al-Thaqāfah, pp. 86–87.
- 50.
Andalusī, Ṣā‘id, Abū al-Qāsim ibn Aḥmad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān (d. 462.1070). Ṭabaqāt al-Umam, p. 65; likewise, al-Qifṭī, Abū al-Ḥasan ‘Alī (d. 646/1248). Ikhbār al-‘Ulamā’ bi-Akhbār al-Ḥukamā’, p. 220.
- 51.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 398
- 52.
Ibn Abī Uṣaybi‘ah, Aḥmad ibn Qāsim (d. 668/1270). ‘Uyūn al-Anbā’ fī Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā’, p. 258
- 53.
Ibn al-Nadīm, Abū al-Faraj Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq (d. 380/990). al-Fihrist, p. 273, and p. 398.
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Bsoul, L.A. (2019). Early Islamic Translation: Second/Eighth-Fourth/Tenth Centuries. In: Translation Movement and Acculturation in the Medieval Islamic World . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21703-7_4
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