Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present how Oxford’s taxonomy of language learning strategies (LLS), published in 1990, was extended by the author for multilingual learners. The impetus for this research is the assumption that L3 acquisition is different form L2 acquisition and that multilinguals reach heightened degrees of language learning awareness. It is hypothesised that multilingual learners, as a particular learner group, tend to develop specific strategies that monolingual L2 learners could not apply. The multilingual strategies integrated into the taxonomy stem from the author’s empirical studies and the literature review in three areas: strategy research, research on multilingualism (TLA), and didactics of plurilingualism. In language teaching methodologies that foster multilingualism in learners, the strategy choice may depend not only on didactic goals but also on the languages and contents involved as well as the treatment of such. The three latter features are used as criteria for classifying these methodologies so as to analyse the LLS they exploit. The extended version of Oxford’s taxonomy and the new strategy questionnaire for multilinguals Multilingual Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (M-SILL) are sought to contribute to the continuity in strategy research from SLA to TLA.
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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the editors Eva Vetter and Ulrike Jessner, the subeditor Sandra Kaltenegger, and the anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions on the earlier drafts of this paper. This research was carried out with the financial support from the Department of Education of the Government of Navarra (Resolution 66/2010, 8.03.2010).
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Appendices
Appendices
1.1 Appendix 1: Oxford’s (1990) Taxonomy Extended for Multilingual Learners
Strategies or strategy uses added to the original taxonomy are listed mainly in the column Additional strategies or strategy uses. They are accompanied by comments and their sources in square brackets. The letter-number coding of the strategies generally follows that of the original taxonomy but with capital letters (A, B, C, D, E, and F) for the six LLS groups and capital letters in round brackets for strategy sets. The tracking codes are placed in square brackets after the names of the strategies and strategy sets. The complete definitions of the original 62 strategies are available in Oxford (1990). Strategies tested in M-SILL contain the number of the item and its frequency of use reported in survey study 2 in Dmitrenko (2016).
Study 1 and study 2 refer to empirical studies in Dmitrenko (2016).
Source: adapted from Dmitrenko (2016, pp. 506–510)
Abbreviations
- L::
-
language
- L1::
-
first/native language
- Lx::
-
any language(s)
- TL::
-
target language
- IC::
-
intercomprehension
- CLIL::
-
Content and Language Integrated Learning
- FREPA::
-
Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches (Candelier et al. 2012)
1.1.1 Direct Strategies
1.1.1.1 A. Memory Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Creating mental linkages [d-A-(A)] | 1. Grouping [d-A-(A)-1] | Grouping cognate words from different languages by crosslinguistic similarities [study 1] | |
Establishing parallels between cognates [IC: Masperi 2002] | |||
2. Associating/elaborating [d-A-(A)-2] (➔ 1: 3.9-H) | Activating prior linguistic, encyclopaedic and didactic knowledge [IC: Meissner 2004; Masperi 2002] | ✓ | |
Search for known, recognisable, international, transparent TL elements [IC: Carrasco Perea et al. 2008; Hidalgo 2012; FREPA: S 2.3.1] (➔ 19: 3.3-M) | ✓ | ||
3. Placing new words into a context [d-A-(A)-3] | |||
(B) Applying images and sounds [d-A-(B)] | 1. Using imagery [d-A-(B)-1] | ||
2. Semantic mapping [d-A-(B)-2] | |||
3. Using keywords [d-A-(B)-3] | Auditory link [extended from L1 to any Lx]: identifying a familiar word in any language (L1 or Lx) that sounds like the new TL word | ||
4. Representing sounds in memory [d-A-(B)-4] (➔ 16: 3.0-M) | Using songs as auditory mnemonics so as to remember new words and structures in different languages [study 2] | ✓ | |
(C) Reviewing well [d-A-(C)] | 1. Structured reviewing [d-A-(C)-1] | Applied in CLIL | |
(D) Employing action [d-A-(D)] | 1. Using physical response or sensation [d-A-(D)-1] | ||
2. Using mechanical techniques [d-A-(D)-2] |
1.1.1.2 B. Cognitive Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Practicing [d-B-(A)] | 1. Repeating [d-B-(A)-1] | ||
2. Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems [d-B-(A)-2] | |||
3. Recognising and using formulas and patterns [d-B-(A)-3] (➔ 20: 3.9-H) | ✓ | ||
4. Recombining [d-B-(A)-4] | |||
5. Practicing naturalistically [d-B-(A)-5] (➔ 22: 3.3-M) | Applied in intercomprehension methodologies (online chats, emails etc.) | ✓ | |
(B) Receiving and sending messages [d-B-(B)] | 1. Getting the idea quickly [d-B-(B)-1] | ||
2. Using resources for receiving and sending messages [d-B-(B)-2] | Translanguaging: Using varied resources in different languages to produce an output in another language [CLIL: Coyle et al. 2011; FREPA: S 6.4 → communicate “between languages”] | ||
(C) Analysing and reasoning [d-B-(C)] | 1. Reasoning deductively [d-B-(C)-1] | Extended from L1 to any Lx [SILL 2.1: 111; SILL 1.3: 124] (➔ 14: 3.7-H) | ✓ |
2. Analysing expressions [d-B-(C)-2] (➔ 13: 3.2-M) | ✓ | ||
3. Analysing contrastively (across languages) [d-B-(C)-3] (➔ 6: 2.6-M, 8: 3,4-M, 18: 2.9-M, 24: 2.8-M) | Searching for similarities in related languages [IC: Masperi 2002; SILL 2.1: 58; FREPA: S 7.5; Study 1] | ✓✓ | |
✓✓ | |||
Comparing elements (sounds, vocabulary, grammar) of the new TL with elements of any learner’s language (L1 and Lx) to determine similarities and differences [study 1; FREPA: S 3.6, S 3.7; SILL 5.1: 36; SILL 7.0: 19] (➔ 4: 3.4-M) | ✓ | ||
4. Translating [d-B-(C)-4] (➔ 7: 4.0-H) | Translating a TL expression into any other learner’s language (TL → L1 or Lx) [study 1; FREPA: S 5.3.3] (➔15: 3.5-H) | ✓ | |
✓ | |||
5. Transferring [d-B-(C)-5] (➔ 17: 3.2-M) | Typology of transfer in the didactics of plurilingualism [Meissner 2004]: | ✓ | |
1. by the number of languages involved: intralinguistic (1 L)/ crosslinguistic transfer (>1 L) | |||
2. by direction: proactive/retroactive transfer [also SILL 1.3: 84; FREPA: S 5.3; study 1] | |||
3. by skills: receptive transfer (identification, reconstruction/ recoding)/productive transfer | |||
Additional transfer strategies: | |||
Identifying transfer (or bridge) languages [Meissner 2004; Study 1] (➔ 5: 2.8-M) | ✓ | ||
Identifying and using transfer bases from different bridge languages (from L1 and/or from one/several Lx) [FREPA: S 5.2; 5.2.1; 5.3; EuroCom methodology; study 1] (➔ 2: 3.3-M) | ✓ | ||
6. Reasoning inductively [d-B-(C)-6] ADDED | Using inductive approaches [FREPA: S 1.1.1] and formulating hypothesis [FREPA: S 1.1.2] in the analysis of linguistic phenomena. Constructing hypothetical or spontaneous grammar [FREPA: S 5.1; Meissner 2004; Masperi 2002; Study 1] (➔ 21: 3.4-M) | ✓ | |
7. Interconnecting different languages [d-B-(C)-7] ADDED | Establishing connections between languages leading to “decompartmentalising” and genuine plurilingual competence [CEFR: CoE 2001—plurilingual approach; Hidalgo 2012; Study 1] (➔ 3: 3.7-H) | ✓ | |
(D) Creating structure for input and output [d-B-(D)] | 1. Taking notes [d-B-(D)-1] | Translanguaging [CLIL: Coyle et al. 2011] | |
2. Summarising [d-B-(D)-2] | Translanguaging [CLIL: Coyle et al. 2011; IC: Carrasco Perea et al. 2008; FREPA: S 6.4; S 6.4.1; S 6.4.1.1] | ||
3. Highlighting [d-B-(D)-3] |
1.1.1.3 C. Compensation Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Guessing intelligently in listening and reading [d-C-(A)] (➔ 9: 4.0-H; 12: 4.1-H) | 1. Using linguistic clues [d-C-(A)-1] (➔ 11: 3.4-M) | Using prior languages knowledge so as to access the unknown but typologically related language(s) (through intercomprehension) [study 1; FREPA: S 7.3.2; IC, EuroCom methodologies; SILL 1.3: 42; SILL 2.1: 38] | ✓ |
Termed “inference” in the didactics of intercomprehension [e.g. López Alonso and Séré 2001] | |||
Deductive inference (by similarity of transparent forms) [López Alonso and Séré 1998] | ✓✓ | ||
Inferencing optimised by seven transfer inventories (Seven Sieves of EuroCom) [Klein and Stegmann 2000] | |||
2. Using other clues [d-C-(A)-2] (➔ 10: 4.3-H) | Using non-linguistic clues for intercomprehensive reading/listening in the unknown but typologically related language(s) [IC, EuroCom methodologies; SILL 1.3: 69; FREPA: S 3.9.1; study 1] | ✓ | |
Inductive inference (by context or world knowledge) [López Alonso and Séré 1998, 2001] | |||
(B) Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing [d-C-(B)] | 1. Switching to the mother tongue [d-C-(B)-1] | Switching to any other learner’s language Lx [Rubin 1975; FREPA: S 6.5.1; SILL 1.3: 73 (modified: L1 → Lx)] (➔ 25: 2.9-M) | ✓ |
Adding word endings from the new TL onto words from any learner’s language Lx (extended: L1 → Lx) | |||
In plurilingual interaction (IC): to transmit the meaning and facilitate comprehension to others [IC: Baqué et al. 2007] | |||
2. Getting help [d-C-(B)-2] | |||
3. Using mime or gesture [d-C-(B)-3] | In plurilingual interaction (IC): to transmit the meaning and facilitate comprehension to others [IC: Baqué et al. 2007] | ||
4. Avoiding communication partially of totally [d-C-(B)-4] | |||
5. Selecting the topic [d-C-(B)-5] | |||
6. Adjusting or approximating the message [d-C-(B)-6] | Interaction in intercomprehension (IC) [Hidalgo 2012] | ||
In plurilingual interaction (IC): used to transmit the meaning and facilitate comprehension to others [IC: Baqué et al. 2007] | |||
7. Coining words [d-C-(B)-7] (➔ 23: 2.8-M) | ✓ | ||
8. Using a circumlocution or synonym [d-C-(B)-8] | In plurilingual interaction (IC): to transmit the meaning and facilitate comprehension to others [IC: Baqué et al. 2007] | ||
(C) Adjusting written/oral production so as to facilitate comprehension to other speakers (especially in related languages) [IC: Baqué et al. 2007] [d-C-(C)] ADDED | 1. Providing non-linguistic clues for intercomprehension [d-C-(C)-1] ADDED | (1) adjusting one’s own speech—to the needs of the other interlocutor (e.g. pronouncing more clearly, slowing down speech rate) | |
(2) becoming more expressive—through non-linguistic means: (a) intonation (melody, rhythm, expressive stress) and (b) physical motion (i.e. using mime, gesture or movements) | |||
2. Providing linguistic clues for intercomprehension [d-C-(C)-2] ADDED | (1) repeating in a more efficient manner (similar to Oxford’s (1990) strategy “adjusting or approximating the message”) | ||
(2) reformulating the message: includes Oxford’s (1990) “using a circumlocution or synonym” and is complemented by other tools: (a) linguistic (lexical) (e.g. using hyperonyms, internationalisms, explanation, or examples); and (b) non-linguistic reference tools (e.g. presenting or showing something by gesture or movements (mime)) | |||
(3) code-switching: code-switching to any other interlocutors’ language, regardless if it is native and typologically related or not |
1.1.2 Indirect Strategies
1.1.2.1 D. Metacognitive Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Centring your learning [i-D-(A)] | 1. Overviewing and linking with already known material [i-D-(A)-1] | ||
2. Paying attention [i-D-(A)-2] | Selective attention to the text elements in seven areas (EuroCom Seven Sieves) [Klein and Stegmann 2000] | ||
Selective attention: control of attention involved in selection of a particular language so as to use or keep using it for communication [Segalowitz 2010] | |||
3. Delaying speech production to focus on listening [i-D-(A)-3] | Dissociation of competences: choosing to “dissociate” (temporary) competences by laying initial focus on fostering reading comprehension in one or several target languages related to one (or more) language(s) from the learner’s linguistic repertoire [IC, EuroCom methodology; Dégache and Masperi 1995; Masperi 2002] | ||
(B) Arranging and planning your learning [i-D-(B)] | 1. Learning to learn (renamed and reorganised to include a & b) [i-D-(B)-1] | a. Finding out about language learning: Making efforts to find out how language learning works by reading books and talking with other people, and then using this information to help improve one’s own language learning [Oxford 1990] [i-D-(B)-1a] (➔ 29: 3.6-H) | ✓ |
b. Didactic or learning transfer: applying “learning to learn competence” developed in prior languages for learning a new TL [Meissner 2004; EuroCom; FREPA: S 7.7.3; Study 1] [i-D-(B)-1b] (➔ 30: 3.6-H) | ✓ | ||
Raising language learning awareness through writing a language learning diary and discussing with peers (← E. affective strategies) [Bär 2008] | |||
Reflecting on strategies activated (or neglected), evaluating their validity and efficiency in the task [Masperi 2002] | |||
2. Organising [i-D-(B)-2] | Collecting information and assessing difficulty of prospective target languages: before choosing a new TL making efforts to find out about its features and difficulty [study 1] (➔ 26: 2.2-L) | ✓ | |
Choosing a new TL which is similar/related to any of prior languages (and thereby, easier to learn) [Hidalgo 2012; Study 1] (➔ 27: 1.7-L) | ✓ | ||
Establishing sequencing in language learning (“time management”): Learning two or more target languages at the same time—in parallel or in the same course [study 1; pluralistic approaches—IC, EuroCom] (➔ 32: 2.2-L) | ✓ | ||
3. Setting goals and objectives [i-D-(B)-3] (➔ 31: 3.4-M) | Setting clear goals for every language in the learner’s plurilingual repertoire [FREPA: S 7.7.1; SILL 5.1: 56] (➔ 28: 3.3-M) | ✓ | |
✓ | |||
4. Identifying the purpose of a language task [i-D-(B)-4] | |||
5. Planning for a language task [i-D-(B)-5] | |||
6. Seeking practice opportunities [i-D-(B)-6] (➔ 40: 3.3-M) | Looking for activities/practice opportunities in order not to forget the previously learnt languages (Fighting attrition) [study 1] (➔ 41: 3.2-M) | ✓ | |
✓ | |||
(C) Evaluating your learning [i-D-(C)] | 1. Self-monitoring [i-D-(C)-1] | “Control of negative transfer” [cf. Bailini 2013: in Spanish “control de las interferencias negativas”]: | ✓ |
(1) paying attention to the cases of interference from L1 or any Lx into the new TL [SILL 1.3: 104 (L1); SILL 2.1: 93 (L1 + Lx); study 1] (➔ 35: 3.7-H) | |||
(2) being cautious about transferring words or concepts directly from L1/Lx to the new TL [SILL 5.1: 38 B-cognitive → D-Metacognitive in M-SILL] (➔ 34: 3.5-H) | ✓ | ||
(3) Making efforts not to mix up words and structures similar in the new TL and the other languages (L1 or Lx) [Kresić 2012: “avoiding CLI [crosslinguistic influence]”] (➔ 33: 3.5-H) | ✓ | ||
Learning from errors [study 1; SILL 1.3: 15; SILL 2.1: 14; SILL 5.1: 62; SILL 7.0: 31] (➔ 37: 4.1-H) | ✓ | ||
2. Self-evaluating [i-D-(C)-2] | Self-evaluating proficiency levels across languages and over time [study 1] | ||
Comparing one’s own progress in a new TL with learning other prior languages [FREPA: S 7.7.4.1; study 1] (➔ 39: 2.6-M) | ✓ | ||
Comparing and evaluating different teaching/learning methods [FREPA: S 7.7.4.2; study 1] |
1.1.2.2 E. Affective Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Lowering your anxiety [i-E-(A)] | 1. Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation [i-E-(A)-1] | ||
2. Using music [i-E-(A)-2] | |||
3. Using laughter [i-E-(A)-3] | |||
(B) Encouraging yourself [i-E-(B)] | 1. Making positive statements [i-E-(B)-1] | Remembering positive learning experiences in other languages so as to encourage oneself to continue studying the TL or more languages (affective transfer) [Study 1; cf. “motivational transfer” in Meissner, 2011] (➔ 38: 2.7-M) | ✓ |
2. Taking risks wisely [i-E-(B)-2] (➔ 36: 3.7-H) | Changing learner’s attitude towards errors (← learning from errors in [D] metacognitive strategies) [study 1] | ✓ | |
Encouraging oneself to use learner’s different languages even when one is afraid of making a mistake [SILL 7.0: 40 modified] (➔ 43: 3.4-M) | ✓ | ||
Coping with negative feelings about poor outcomes at initial stages [study 1] | |||
3. Rewarding yourself [i-E-(B)-3] | |||
(C) Taking your emotional temperature [i-E-(C)] | 1. Listening to your body [i-E-(C)-1] | ||
2. Using a checklist [i-E-(C)-2] | |||
3. Writing a language learning diary [i-E-(C)-3] | |||
4. Discussing your feelings with someone else [i-E-(C)-4] | Reflecting on one’s own feelings about learning different languages at different stages [Study 1; cf. Meissner 2011] |
1.1.2.3 F. Social Strategies
Sets | Original strategies | Additional strategies or strategy uses | M-SILL |
|---|---|---|---|
(A) Asking questions [i-F-(A)] | 1. Asking for clarification or verification [i-F-(A)-1] | Asking for code-switching: asking the speaker to repeat the same word/expression in any learner’s language (L1 or Lx) [FREPA: S 6; S 6.2.3] (➔ 44: 2.9-M) | ✓ |
2. Asking for correction [i-F-(A)-2] | |||
(B) Cooperating with others [i-F-(B)] (➔ 42: 3.1-M) | 1. Cooperating with peers [i-F-(B)-1] | Practicing languages with people from different countries by communicating through the internet [IC methodologies using online chats; FREPA: S 7.6.1.2; study 2] (➔ 45: 2.0-L) | ✓ |
2. Cooperating with proficient users of the new language [i-F-(B)-2] | See above ((1) Cooperating with peers) | ✓ | |
Cooperating in plurilingual IC interaction (with peers and more proficient TL speakers) by confirming comprehension and inviting them to participate [Carrasco Perea et al. 2008] | |||
(C) Empathising with others [i-F-(C)] | 1. Developing cultural understanding [i-F-(C)-1] | ||
2. Becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings [i-F-(C)-2] |
Appendix 2: Classification of the Approaches Within the Didactics of Plurilingualism (Reduced Version of Dmitrenko (2016, p. 181))
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Dmitrenko, V. (2019). Extending Oxford’s (1990) Taxonomy for Multilingual Learners. In: Vetter, E., Jessner, U. (eds) International Research on Multilingualism: Breaking with the Monolingual Perspective. Multilingual Education, vol 35. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21380-0_11
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