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Duress as an Excuse Defence for International Crimes

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Child Soldiers and the Defence of Duress under International Criminal Law

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Abstract

The application of duress as a justification defence by national and international criminal tribunals has resulted largely in a number of accused failing to invoke successfully the defence. This chapter therefore examines the application of duress as an excuse as opposed to a justification defence. By revisiting and applying duress as an excuse rather than a justification, an interpretation of the defence of duress in a way that more accurately reflects the reality faced by child soldiers is explored. This would enable child soldiers as well as adult perpetrators to invoke it more or less successfully in armed conflict. Nonetheless, many child soldiers would still find it difficult to raise duress as a complete defence due to the application of the strict criteria of duress under international criminal law. Therefore, even if interpreted in a different light, duress is not the ultimate defence as so often claimed by legal scholars.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Cassese et al. 2013, 6. See Ambos 2013, 56.

  2. 2.

    Gilbert 2006, 144; Schabas 2016, 636; Ambos 2013, 302.

  3. 3.

    Wall 2006, 739.

  4. 4.

    Joyce 2015, 637. See Ambos 2013, 305; Paciocco 2010, 243.

  5. 5.

    Weigend 2011, 1232; Cryer et al. 2014, 399.

  6. 6.

    Chiesa 2008, 745. Fletcher puts it differently and states that: ‘[t]he question should not be whether the actor can be fairly expected to resist human threats, but whether he can fairly expect to abstain from an act that seems required under the circumstances.’ Fletcher 2000, 834.

  7. 7.

    Colvin 1990, 393. See discussion in Fletcher 1998, 83–85.

  8. 8.

    Ursini 2015, 1040 (in relation to the Geneva Conventions and genocide).

  9. 9.

    Sassòli 2002, 411–412.

  10. 10.

    Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field 1949.

  11. 11.

    Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of the Armed Forces at Sea 1949.

  12. 12.

    Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War 1949.

  13. 13.

    Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War 1949.

  14. 14.

    Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Additional Protocol I) 1977.

  15. 15.

    ICRC 2019. See discussions in Schmitt 2011, 44–48; Roht-Arriaza 1990, 465–467; Manirakiza 2008–2009, 736. Further, the statutes and the case-law of international criminal tribunals such as the ICTY, the ICTR, the SCSL and the ICC have jurisdiction over crimes perpetrated in international and/or non-international armed conflicts.

  16. 16.

    Akande 2012, 300; Cryer et al. 2014, 90; Roht-Arriaza 1990, 513.

  17. 17.

    Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 1948.

  18. 18.

    Hall and Ambos 2016, 155. See Schabas and Zeidy 2016, 786; Schabas 2016, 47.

  19. 19.

    For a definition of impunity, see UNSC 1997, 17.

  20. 20.

    See Cassese et al. 2013, 241–247; Horovitz et al. 2014, 227.

  21. 21.

    See discussion in Sadat 2006, 1022. Also, the ECCC stated in ECCC Nuon et al. 2011, para. 53, that ‘the Chamber concludes that an emerging consensus prohibits amnesties in relation to serious international crimes, based on a duty to investigate and prosecute these crimes and to punish their perpetrators.’ The crimes the Court refers to are genocide, torture and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions. For other crimes, the ECCC argues that it is left to courts to evaluate amnesties.

  22. 22.

    ICC Gaddafi 2019, para. 77.

  23. 23.

    ICC Gaddafi 2019, para. 61.

  24. 24.

    Sadat 2006, 1022. For an opposing view, see Werle and Jessberger 2014, 88–89; Ambos 2013, 422–423.

  25. 25.

    SCSL Kallon and Kamara 2004. See Cassese et al. 2013, 244; Triffterer and Burchard 2016, 1052; Williams 2005.

  26. 26.

    Uganda Kwoyelo 2015. See Drumbl 2016, 238–239.

  27. 27.

    See discussion in Fournet 2008, 514–519; Cryer et al. 2014, 540; Ambos 2013, 411.

  28. 28.

    See Triffterer and Burchard 2016, 1052; Cryer et al. 2014, 540–541; Ambos 2013, 406–407.

  29. 29.

    Charter of the International Military Tribunal 1945; Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East 1946. This was confirmed in the Nuremberg Judgement that proclaimed that ‘[t]he principle of international law which, under certain circumstances, protects the representatives of a state, cannot be applied to acts which are condemned as criminal by international law. The authors of these acts cannot shelter themselves behind their official position in order to be freed from punishment in appropriate proceedings’. Re Goering (1946) 13 ILR 203 (IMT) 221 as cited in Fournet 2008, 514. See also Ambos 2013, 413–414.

  30. 30.

    ILC 1950, Principle III.

  31. 31.

    SCSL Statute 2002.

  32. 32.

    ICC Al-Bashir 2019, para. 103.

  33. 33.

    Ambos 1999, 23.

  34. 34.

    Scaliotti 2002, 41. See Schabas 2016, 595.

  35. 35.

    For information on the case, see http://www.icty.org/case/slobodan_milosevic/4 (last visited 15 July 2018).

  36. 36.

    SCSL Taylor 2013.

  37. 37.

    In relation to Kosovo: ICTY Milošević et al. 2001; In relation to Croatia: ICTY Milošević 2001a; In relation to Bosnia-Herzegovina: ICTY Milošević 2001b.

  38. 38.

    SCSL Taylor 2004. For an analysis of the case, see Frulli 2004; Nouwen 2005; Frulli 2013.

  39. 39.

    In Orić, the ICTY opined that ‘[r]eference to Article 26 of the … Statute [of the ICC] is of no relevance as the age limit mentioned therein is only for jurisdictional purposes’. ICTY Orić 2006, fn 1177. See Drumbl 2012, 119.

  40. 40.

    See discussion in Drumbl 2012, 118.

  41. 41.

    SCSL Statute 2002, Art. 7. See Triffterer and Clark 2016, 1036.

  42. 42.

    See Criminal Code of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Arts 1(8) and 8.

  43. 43.

    UNTAET 2001.

  44. 44.

    Neither the Statute of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia nor the Statute of the Special Tribunal for Lebanon makes any reference to the age of the alleged perpetrator.

  45. 45.

    See discussion in Akakpo 2012, 30. See generally Quénivet 2017.

  46. 46.

    Freeland 2005, 324.

  47. 47.

    See Ursini 2015, 1034; Akakpo 2012, 24; Freeland 2005, 324.

  48. 48.

    Joyce 2015, 642.

  49. 49.

    Chiesa 2008, 762.

  50. 50.

    See Degan 2005, 55.

  51. 51.

    The Special Court for Sierra Leone has a mixed composition consisting of judges from Sierra Leone and international judges. For example, in SCSL Kallon and Kamara 2004, the three judges were Judge Renate Winter (Austria), Judge George Gelaga King (Sierra Leone) and Judge Emmanuel Ayoola (Nigeria).

  52. 52.

    Crimes under international law can be defined as the ‘most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole’. ICC Statute 1998, Preamble. See Zimmermann 2016, 117; Cassese et al. 2013, 20; Schabas 2017, 75; Kittichaisaree 2001, 3.

  53. 53.

    See discussion in Mohamed 2015, 1213.

  54. 54.

    See Kochhar and Hieramente 2016, 231 and 243–244.

  55. 55.

    Chiesa 2008, 763–764.

  56. 56.

    Mohamed 2015, 1210.

  57. 57.

    Macdonald and Porter 2016, 710, but see discussion in whole article.

  58. 58.

    United Nations Secretary-General 2000, para. 7. See Nylund 2016, 201; Siegrist 2006, 55; Happold 2006, 76–81.

  59. 59.

    UNSR 2011, 27. See United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2009, para. 72; Manirakiza 2008–2009, 722.

  60. 60.

    ICRC 2007, para. 11 (emphasis added).

  61. 61.

    Drumbl 2012, 103 and discussion 102–103.

  62. 62.

    Byrd 1987, 1301.

  63. 63.

    Colvin 1990, 389. See Robinson 1997, 81.

  64. 64.

    Klasen et al. 2015, 185–186. See Wessells 2006, 78–80; Fisher 2013, 82.

  65. 65.

    Iacono 2002, 450.

  66. 66.

    Wainryb 2011, 288.

  67. 67.

    Colvin 1990, 392. It is particularly interesting to note that Colvin suggests that defences be divided into three categories, one of which being ‘defences of contextual permission’ which allow for exculpation in cases of ‘conduct which is reasonable in the sense that it might well be the conduct of a person displaying an ordinary level of concern for the welfare of others’ (407).

  68. 68.

    Rosen 1986, 23.

  69. 69.

    See Bond and Fougere 2014, 498.

  70. 70.

    See Fisher 2013, 76–80.

  71. 71.

    See Paphiti 1999, 272.

  72. 72.

    Heim 2013, 169.

  73. 73.

    Dressler 1988–1989, 1363–1364.

  74. 74.

    Smeulers 2008, 973.

  75. 75.

    ICTY Erdemović 1997, para. 47. See Paphiti 1999, 272.

  76. 76.

    May, L., Crimes against Humanity: A Normative Account (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005) as cited in Souris 2017, 330.

  77. 77.

    Paphiti 1999, 272.

  78. 78.

    Another way to look at this is to combine the defences of necessity and duress. See discussion in Bassiouni 2013, 441.

  79. 79.

    As cited in Ben-Naftali 2009, 696. See discussion in Singer 2013, 253.

  80. 80.

    Doris, J.M. and D. Murphy, ‘From My Lai to Abu Ghraib: The Moral Psychology of Atrocity’ 31 Midwest Studies in Philosophy (2007) 25–55 as cited in Souris 2017, 330.

  81. 81.

    Olusanya 2010, 69.

  82. 82.

    Drumbl 2016.

  83. 83.

    Kurt 2018. See discussion in Fisk 2018.

  84. 84.

    Dumas 2014, 79.

  85. 85.

    Greppi 1999; Werle and Jessberger 2014, 195. For a comprehensive overview of the difficulties faced with drafting the concept of individual criminal responsibility within the ICC Statute, see Schabas 2016, 561–564.

  86. 86.

    International Military Tribunal 1946, 221. See Werle and Jessberger 2014, 6.

  87. 87.

    Cassese et al. 2013, 3.

  88. 88.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 27.

  89. 89.

    Derluyn et al. 2004, 862–863; Klasen et al. 2015, 184–191. Generally, research demonstrates that perpetrators suffer from a variety of mental health problems. Mohamed 2015, 1163 and 1187.

  90. 90.

    Mohamed 2015, 1170.

  91. 91.

    Singer 2005, 109.

  92. 92.

    Huyghebaert 2009, 70; Drumbl 2015.

  93. 93.

    See Derluyn et al. 2004, 861; Nagle 2011, 2–3.

  94. 94.

    Nortje 2017, 196; Singer 2005, 88.

  95. 95.

    Baines and Boniface 2008, 10. See Baines 2009, 181.

  96. 96.

    Haer and Böhmelt 2016, 414; Coomaraswamy 2012, 159; Waschefort 2015, 49–52.

  97. 97.

    Boyden 2003, 356.

  98. 98.

    Valder 2014, 44. See Huyghebaert 2009, 62.

  99. 99.

    Lafayette 2012–2013, 306.

  100. 100.

    Sinha 2013, 588; Posada and Wainryb 2008.

  101. 101.

    Park 2014, 58.

  102. 102.

    See Drumbl 2012, 87–88.

  103. 103.

    Macdonald and Porter 2016, 712.

  104. 104.

    Akakpo 2012, 24.

  105. 105.

    Maclure and Denov 2006, 131.

  106. 106.

    Amnesty International 2000, 6–7. See Brett and Specht 2004, 9. Such a case-by-case assessment is not only warranted for children only but for a range of perpetrators. As Drumbl underlines, the false simplicity of setting a chronological age to the end of childhood yields the sad consequence of denying young adults whose physiological development is not finished the opportunity to be regarded as children. Drumbl 2014–2015, 626.

  107. 107.

    Joyce 2015, 626–630.

  108. 108.

    For example, the focus of the definition of duress under French law is on the force constraining the defendants’ choice. French Criminal Code, Art. 122-2 states that ‘[a] person is not criminally liable who acted under the influence of a force or a constraint which they could not resist’. See discussion in Elliott 2000, 321; Wiener 2014, 95; Yee 1997, 296–297.

  109. 109.

    Joyce 2015, 629.

  110. 110.

    US German High Command 1947–1948. See Joyce 2015, 639.

  111. 111.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1417; Wiener 2014, 124–125; Dinstein 2000, 373; Dinstein 1985, 2333.

  112. 112.

    Bond and Fougere 2014, 489. See also Knoops 2008, 49.

  113. 113.

    As Linton and Reiger stress, ‘[d]uress to join a group engaged in criminal activities and duress to commit a crime when part of that group requires its own evidence.’ Linton and Reiger 2001, 197.

  114. 114.

    Joyce 2015, 628. US Flick et al. 1947, 8–9. See Lippman 1992, 87.

  115. 115.

    Walls 2006, 737.

  116. 116.

    Knoops, ‘The Diverging Position of Criminal Law Defences before the ICTY and the ICC: Contemporary Developments’, in Doria, J., et al. (eds), The Legal Regime of the International Criminal Court: Essays in Honour of Professor Igor Blishchenko (Brill, 2009) 779–794, 783 as cited in Weigend 2011, fn 56.

  117. 117.

    See relevant discussion by Ambos 2013, 361–362.

  118. 118.

    Robinson 2013, 150.

  119. 119.

    Ambos states that ‘the remaining question is no longer whether duress/necessity can be invoked in the case of a killing of innocent persons at all, but rather what the specific requirements of such a defence are and how, from a theoretical point of view, it is to be clarified’. Ambos 2013, 363.

  120. 120.

    See Paphiti 1999, 272.

  121. 121.

    Weigend 2011, 1228. Similarly, The English Law Commission held that ‘it is not only futile, but also wrong, for the criminal law to demand heroic behaviour. The attainment of a heroic standard of behaviour will always count for great merit; but failure to achieve that standard should not be met with punishment by the State’. See Legislating the Criminal Code: Offences Against the Person and General Principles 1993, para. 30.11. See Naylor 2006, 27. For an opposing view, see Dinstein 2000, 375, who states that ‘neither ethically nor legally can the life of the accused be regarded as more valuable than that of another human being (let alone a number of human beings).’

  122. 122.

    See, for example, Carr 1991, 173; Smith 1989, 94.

  123. 123.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 480. See Risacher 2013–2014, 1422. Similarly, in Priebke the Court explained that ‘no person could have expected Priebke to act as a hero and to sacrifice his own life in order to avoid participating in the inhumane execution’. ICTY Erdemović 1997, fn 68 (translation by Cassese). The original reads as follows: ‘in tale ipotesi, infatti, nessuno avrebbe potuto pretendere dal PRIEBKE un comportamento eroico ed il sacrificio della propria vita per evitare di concorrere in una disumana esecuzione.’ Italy Priebke 1955, para. 9.2. See Dinstein 2000, 374.

  124. 124.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1417. Knoops echoes this statement by stating that ‘an accused is considered not to be criminally responsible for his/her acts only if the conduct was the result of factors preventing him or her from exercising his or her free will, which factors are in most events external to the person, such as is the case with duress’. See Knoops 2008, 54.

  125. 125.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1405.

  126. 126.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1421. See also Ambos 2013, 364.

  127. 127.

    See Risacher 2013–2014, 1408; Akakpo 2012, 43; Yee 1997, 297.

  128. 128.

    ‘il ne ressort pas de l’instruction que les pressions ainsi faites ont été d’une telle intensité qu’elles aient pu constituer une contrainte ayant aboli le libre arbitre de Maurice PAPON.’ France Papon 1996.

  129. 129.

    Dressler 1988–1989, 1365. See also Fletcher who states that ‘[t]here is no criminal liability without blameworthy wrongdoing.’ Fletcher 1998, 85.

  130. 130.

    See Heim 2013, 169.

  131. 131.

    In an excuse, ‘the relevant question is whether the particular actor can fairly be blamed for having succumbed to overwhelming pressure’. Rosen 1986, 23.

  132. 132.

    Touvier Case, Cour d’Appel de Versailles, 1ère chambre d’accusation, 2 June 1993, AN-647AP93 as cited in ICTY Erdemović 1997, fn 68 (translation by Cassese). See Bassiouni 2013, 447.

  133. 133.

    Chiesa 2008, 767.

  134. 134.

    Rosen 1986, 22. See UK Hudson 1971; Fletcher 2000, 831.

  135. 135.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1417.

  136. 136.

    See Fisher 2013, 66.

  137. 137.

    See Joyce 2015, 626–627.

  138. 138.

    Zahar and Sluiter 2008, 429.

  139. 139.

    See for example discussion in Dumas 2014, 81 on children being used as tools in Rwanda. Fisher 2013, 64.

  140. 140.

    East Timor Tribunal X 2002, para. 57.

  141. 141.

    Nortje 2017, 198. See Baines 2009, 179–180.

  142. 142.

    Cassese et al. 2013, 215. See discussion in Smith 1989, 95.

  143. 143.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1425. See discussion in Ambos 2013, 354.

  144. 144.

    Ehrenreich Brooks 2002–2003, 873. See also Werle and Jessberger 2014, 242; Smith 1989, 94.

  145. 145.

    Chiesa 2008, 753.

  146. 146.

    Chiesa 2008, 753. See ICTY Erdemović 1997, para. 47; Ehrenreich Brooks 2002–2003, 876; Brooks 2016, 211.

  147. 147.

    See Germany Gestapo Informer 1949, 202. See Fletcher 1998, 83.

  148. 148.

    Burchard 2009, 693.

  149. 149.

    Krebs 2013, 409; Ambos 1999, 28.

  150. 150.

    Krebs 2013, 409.

  151. 151.

    Happold 2003, 1163.

  152. 152.

    Bassiouni, M.C., Crimes against Humanity in International Criminal Law (Springer) 439 as cited in Achton Thomas 2013, 30.

  153. 153.

    Chiesa 2008, 753.

  154. 154.

    Greenawalt 2011, 1118.

  155. 155.

    Grant 2016, 18. See Ambos 2013, 302.

  156. 156.

    Grant 2016, 19. See Ambos 2013, 303–304; Carr 1991, 161. For a critique of the ICTY’s lack of distinction between excuses and mitigating circumstances, see Olusanya 2010, 41–47; Cryer et al. 2014, 506–507.

  157. 157.

    Weigend 2011, 1233.

  158. 158.

    See Pruitt 2014, 152.

  159. 159.

    ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence 2013, Rule 145 (2)(a)(i). See Cryer et al. 2014, 506–507.

  160. 160.

    Warburton explains that whether duress is used as a ground for excluding responsibility or as a mitigating factor depends on the nature of the coercion. Warburton 2003, 83.

  161. 161.

    Berman 2003, 5.

  162. 162.

    For a list of factors that could be considered by the ICC, see Cryer et al. 2014, 507.

  163. 163.

    Gilbert 2006, 144.

  164. 164.

    Generally, see Roberts 2012; Cryer et al. 2014, 439–440; Ambos 2013, 312–313; Schabas 2016, 1006–1007.

  165. 165.

    UNCRC, Art. 40(2)(b)(i).

  166. 166.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2007, para. 10.

  167. 167.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2007, para. 4.

  168. 168.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2007, paras 49–50.

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    Windell Nortje

  2. Bristol Law School, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

    Noëlle Quénivet

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Nortje, W., Quénivet, N. (2020). Duress as an Excuse Defence for International Crimes. In: Child Soldiers and the Defence of Duress under International Criminal Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20663-5_5

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