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The Application of the Requirements of Duress to Child Soldiers

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Child Soldiers and the Defence of Duress under International Criminal Law

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Abstract

This chapter methodically applies the requirements of the defence of duress to the particular situation of children aged 15–18 years who have committed crimes under international law. This is done by applying all the requirements of the defence of duress in Article 31(1)(d) of the International Criminal Court (ICC) Statute to the specific situation of child soldiers. Due to a lack of ICC jurisprudence on the defence of duress, recourse must be had to previous national and international jurisprudence to elucidate the conditions spelled out in the provisions of the ICC Statute. This chapter further seeks to address the differences between adult and child perpetrators in light of the application of the defence of duress to child soldiers. Importantly, this chapter fills a critical gap in the vast scholarship on child soldiers as it is one of the first scholarly writings to offer a comprehensive application of the requirements of duress to child soldiers.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 240. See also Cassese et al. 2013, 218; Bassiouni 2013, 445.

  2. 2.

    See generally Ambos 2013, 348–356; Bassiouni 2013, 445.

  3. 3.

    See discussion of the importance of victims in Triffterer, Bergsmo and Ambos 2016, 7. See also Schabas 2016, 42–43; Kochhar and Hieramente 2016, 229–230.

  4. 4.

    Greenawalt 2011, 1111.

  5. 5.

    See ICC Statute 1998, Preamble.

  6. 6.

    See, for example, Schabas 2016, 637; Cryer et al. 2014, 398.

  7. 7.

    ICC Ongwen 2016c. See also Schabas 2016, 636–637.

  8. 8.

    ICC Ongwen 2016a.

  9. 9.

    For a discussion on the distinction between duress and necessity, see ICTY Erdemović 1997a, para. 14. See Eser 2016, 1149–1150.

  10. 10.

    It should be noted that whilst the requirements can be neatly spelled out in terms of the law their application is often intertwined and so factual elements used to understand the application of one requirement might be also pertinent for another requirement.

  11. 11.

    See discussion in Abebe and Bessell 2011, 767. This is also referred to as the biomedical model of childhood. Hinton 2008, 288–289; Derluyn et al. 2015, 30.

  12. 12.

    See Eser 2016, 1152; Ambos 2013, 359.

  13. 13.

    See Ambos 2013, 366.

  14. 14.

    UNCRC 1989, Art. 3.1 provides that ‘[i]n all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration.’

  15. 15.

    See Steinl 2017, 251–252. Stahn notes that ‘[i]nternational justice is underdeveloped in this regard. It lacks special measures for juvenile justice and sentencing.’ Stahn 2019, 317.

  16. 16.

    See, for example, Dinstein 2000, 373–374; Ambos 2013, 357; Schabas 2016, 646; Werle and Jessberger 2014, 241.

  17. 17.

    Bassiouni 2013, 440; Cryer et al. 2014, 407; Ambos 2013, 357. The threat cannot merely exist in the perpetrator’s mind but it must be objectively present. See Eser 2016, 1151.

  18. 18.

    ‘[I]f the job was not done to the satisfaction of the Germans, the consequences would have been no more severe than being put out of the job and resuming the life of an ordinary inmate.’ Enigster Yehezkel Ben Alish, as cited in Bazyler and Tuerkheimer 2014, 213.

  19. 19.

    Anonymous 1956, 769–770.

  20. 20.

    ‘Auch eine langandauernde Freiheitsentziehung kann aber eine ernste Beeinträchtigung der Gesundheit zur Folge haben und deswegen als Leibesgefahr angesehen werden.’ Germany Gestapo Informer 1949, 201.

  21. 21.

    See Werle and Jessberger 2014, 241; Ambos 2013, 357. US courts martials for Prisoners of War (POWs) returning from the Korean war often dismissed duress as a defence, despite the considerable ill-treatment suffered by the POWs. See Anonymous 1956.

  22. 22.

    Lafayette 2012–2013, 313. See Singer 2005, 71–72.

  23. 23.

    Young 2007, 20; Graf 2012, 952; Amone-P’Olak and Ovuga 2017, 18; Drumbl 2012, 80.

  24. 24.

    Veale 2006, 97; Happold 2005, 17; Singer 2005, 113.

  25. 25.

    Happold 2005, 17. See Singer 2005, 72–73.

  26. 26.

    Singer 2005, 113. See Ben-Ari 2009, 4; Wainryb 2011, 283.

  27. 27.

    Wessells notes that ‘[w]ar creates long-lasting wounds, both visible and invisible. Most conspicuous are the physical wounds. Less visible are the hidden wounds of the mind, heart, and soul.’ See Wessells 2006, 126.

  28. 28.

    Trenholm et al. 2012, 220.

  29. 29.

    See Wessells 2006, 79; Fonseka 2001, 71; Nortje 2017, 191; Maclure and Denov 2006, 124; Grant 2016, 10–11; Almohammad 2018, 19.

  30. 30.

    Branch 2017, 42.

  31. 31.

    Maclure and Denov 2006, 126.

  32. 32.

    UNSG 2000, para. 32. See Maclure and Denov 2006, 129.

  33. 33.

    Yarbrough 2014, 534. See Twum-Danso 2003, 29 and 41; ICC Ongwen 2016c, paras 36–57.

  34. 34.

    Faulkner 2001, 499; Honwana 2000, 65.

  35. 35.

    Akakpo 2012, 39; Grant 2016, 9.

  36. 36.

    Happold 2005, 158. See Dinstein 2000, 373.

  37. 37.

    Cryer et al. 2014, 408. Ambos refers to a threat in terms of Article 31(1)(d) as a ‘broader danger’. See Ambos 2013, 357.

  38. 38.

    Cryer et al. 2014, 408.

  39. 39.

    Ambos 2013, 357.

  40. 40.

    Eser 2016, 1149–1150; Ambos 2013, 357.

  41. 41.

    Bassiouni 2013, 440; Ambos 2013, 358.

  42. 42.

    US Krupp et al. 1948, 1438. See generally Bassiouni 2013, 440; Ambos 2013, 349 and 357; Dinstein 2000, 374.

  43. 43.

    See generally Werle and Jessberger 2014, 236–238 and 239; Ambos 2013, 356 and 359; Cryer et al. 2014, 404 and 408.

  44. 44.

    Smith 1982, 1197.

  45. 45.

    Dressler 1988–1989, 1340. See US Krupp et al. 1948, 1439; US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 480; Bassiouni 2013, 440; Yeo 2004, 355.

  46. 46.

    Yeo 2004, 362.

  47. 47.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 480; Cassese et al. 2011, 473.

  48. 48.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 411.

  49. 49.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 483–484.

  50. 50.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 468–469.

  51. 51.

    ICC Katanga and Chui 2008, para. 518.

  52. 52.

    ICC Ongwen 2016b, paras 25 and 35; ICC Katanga 2014, para. 1026. See Happold 2006, 70; Singh 2007, 233.

  53. 53.

    Freeland 2005, 304. Singer states that ‘[c]ombined with liberal amounts of terror and propaganda, impressionable children can rapidly begin to identify with causes they barely understand.’ See Singer 2005, 72.

  54. 54.

    Murphy 2003, 70. See Huyghebaert 2009, 68. Wessells note that ‘[m]any children living in abusive situations see an armed group as providing a better “family” than the one they are living with.’ Wessells 2006, 48.

  55. 55.

    ICC Katanga and Chui 2008, para. 518.

  56. 56.

    ICC Lubanga 2012, paras 883–889.

  57. 57.

    Trenholm et al. 2012, 212.

  58. 58.

    Derluyn et al. 2004, 861; Klasen et al. 2010, 576; Klasen et al. 2015, 184; Amone-P’Olak and Ovuga 2017, 18; Happold 2005, 10–11; Amone-P’Olak et al. 2015, 156; Almohammad 2018, 22. Siegrist notes that ‘[m]odern warfare has exposed children to the worst possible violence and abuse.’ Siegrist 2006, 53.

  59. 59.

    As cited in Pangalangan 2018, 617–618. See Singer 2005, 88.

  60. 60.

    As cited in ICC Ongwen 2016b, para. 25.

  61. 61.

    Grant 2016, 8. Singer furthermore notes that ‘[t]he very process of recruitment and indoctrination are designed to bind the children to the group and, if this is not successful, prevent escape.’ Singer 2005, 88.

  62. 62.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 241; Souris 2017, 330; Bantekas and Nash 2007, 64.

  63. 63.

    Maystre 2014, 992.

  64. 64.

    Bond and Fougere 2014, 491–500. Akakpo uses the French concept of ‘états généraux de contrainte’. Akakpo 2012, 40.

  65. 65.

    Bond and Fougere 2014, 493.

  66. 66.

    ECCC Duch 2010, para. 555. See Cryer et al. 2014, 408.

  67. 67.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 241.

  68. 68.

    ICTY Mrđa 2004, para. 66 (emphasis added).

  69. 69.

    See Olusanya 2010, 54–55 (and accompanying footnotes) and 63.

  70. 70.

    Cassese et al. 2013, 215.

  71. 71.

    Cryer et al. 2014, 406.

  72. 72.

    Nemitz 2009, 972.

  73. 73.

    See Yeo 2004, 356 and 365.

  74. 74.

    Bond and Fougere 2014, 500 and discussion at 507–510.

  75. 75.

    ICC Ongwen 2016a, para. 153.

  76. 76.

    ICC Ongwen 2016a, para. 153.

  77. 77.

    Stahn 2019, 155.

  78. 78.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 243; Ambos 2013, 360; Tadros 2011, 223; US Krupp et al. 1948, 1443–1444. The person exposed to the threat can either be the perpetrator or someone else. This broad approach also allows for the protection of third persons, while no special relationship is required between the perpetrator and the other person who is being threatened. Eser 2016, 1152.

  79. 79.

    Scaliotti 2001, 156; Ambos 2013, 360.

  80. 80.

    Krebs 2013, 407.

  81. 81.

    Scaliotti 2001, 156; Ambos 2013, 359-360; Eser 2016, 1154.

  82. 82.

    ICTY Mrđa 2004, para. 66.

  83. 83.

    Olusanya 2010, 56. See generally Alexander and Kessler Ferzan 2011, 264.

  84. 84.

    Eser 2016, 1152. See Yeo 1990, 44–45.

  85. 85.

    US Krupp et al. 1948, 1439; US Flick et al. 1947, 8. See Dinstein 1985, 234.

  86. 86.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 482.

  87. 87.

    Public Prosecutor v. Joni Marques & Ors (Lospalos Case), as cited in Linton and Reiger 2001, 191.

  88. 88.

    US Einsatzgruppen 1948, 482.

  89. 89.

    Eser 2016, 1152. See Cassese et al. 2013, 215.

  90. 90.

    ECCC Duch 2010, para. 555.

  91. 91.

    Nylund states that: ‘A consideration is required around whether children can really be tried against the standard of “know or should have known” about the criminal impact of activities that they were involved in when they are not yet able to fully form their knowledge.’ Nylund 2016, 204.

  92. 92.

    Grover 2005, 233. Happold posits that child soldiers ‘may develop a dependency relationship with their commanders and become inured to killing’. Happold 2005, 17.

  93. 93.

    Custer 2005, 470; Wessells 2006, 57; Happold 2005, 31; Fisher 2013, 73.

  94. 94.

    Fagan cited in Dore 2007–2008, fn 142; McDiarmid 2016, 332.

  95. 95.

    Dore 2007–2008, 1309 (emphasis added). See Lafayette 2012–2013, 318–319; Happold 2005, 14.

  96. 96.

    Achton Thomas 2013, 9.

  97. 97.

    Smeulers however argues that even adults struggle to make the right decisions. She explains that ‘the environment in which perpetrators of international crimes operate seems to approve the crimes, and that is a decisive factor which turns many more people, even otherwise law-abiding people, into perpetrators.’ Smeulers 2008, 980.

  98. 98.

    See Chapleau as cited in Akakpo 2012, 39.

  99. 99.

    Smeulers 2008, 974 and 978–981.

  100. 100.

    Smeulers 2008, 976. See Fisher 2013, 77.

  101. 101.

    Drumbl 2012, 80.

  102. 102.

    Haer and Böhmelt 2016, 412. See ICC Ongwen 2016b, para. 25; Trenholm et al. 2012, 220.

  103. 103.

    McKay 2005, 388.

  104. 104.

    Weierstall et al. 2012; Klasen et al. 2010, 579–580.

  105. 105.

    Manirakiza 2008–2009, 754; Grover 2005, 231 in relation to Rwanda.

  106. 106.

    See discussion on adults in Smeulers 2008, 977.

  107. 107.

    Posada and Wainryb 2008, 883 and 894.

  108. 108.

    McDiarmid 2016, 331; Fisher 2013, 68.

  109. 109.

    See discussion in Amone-P’Olak et al. 2007, 657; Trenholm et al. 2012, 314.

  110. 110.

    See Expert Group 2006, 3.

  111. 111.

    Baines 2009, 174. See Amone-P’Olak and Ovuga 2017, 18.

  112. 112.

    Maclure and Denov 2006, 128.

  113. 113.

    Souris 2017, 324.

  114. 114.

    Honwana 2005, 49. De Certeau defines a tactic as ‘a calculated action determined by the absence of a proper locus’. See de Certeau 1984, 37.

  115. 115.

    Schmidt 2007, 60.

  116. 116.

    Fisher 2013, 65.

  117. 117.

    Fisher 2013, 68.

  118. 118.

    Honwana 2005, 48.

  119. 119.

    Honwana 2005, 48.

  120. 120.

    Baines and Boniface 2008, 10; Manirakiza 2008–2009, 737–738.

  121. 121.

    Twum-Danso 2003, 41; Baines and Boniface 2008, 6. Generally Hinton explains that ‘children can manage hazards and misfortune, and influence their own fate and that of those around them’. Hinton 2008, 295.

  122. 122.

    See Nortje 2017, 187; Branch 2017, 28.

  123. 123.

    See generally Seelinger 2017; Bradfield 2017.

  124. 124.

    Maclure and Denov 2006, 121 and 129.

  125. 125.

    See, for example, Singer 2005, 72.

  126. 126.

    Souris 2017, 320.

  127. 127.

    Drumbl 2012, 88.

  128. 128.

    ICC Ongwen 2016b, para. 25.

  129. 129.

    Boothby and Thomson 2013, 743. Some child soldiers also normalise violence partly because they have no other option but to fight. See Brett and Specht 2004, 41.

  130. 130.

    See UNSG 1996, para. 48. See Amone-P’Olak and Ovuga 2017, 18.

  131. 131.

    Baines 2009, 166; Dickson-Gomez 2002, 350; Almohammad 2018, 5–6.

  132. 132.

    Maclure and Denov 2006, 125.

  133. 133.

    Almohammad 2018, 12.

  134. 134.

    Maxted 2003, 68. More generally, see Almohammad 2018, 6.

  135. 135.

    Amone-P’Olak and Ovuga 2017, 18.

  136. 136.

    Trenholm et al. 2012, 212.

  137. 137.

    Amone-P’Olak et al. 2007, 656–657.

  138. 138.

    ICC Ongwen 2016c, para. 4. See Drumbl 2016, 241-242; Pangalangan 2018, 628.

  139. 139.

    Pangalangan 2018, 629.

  140. 140.

    Branch 2017, 40–41.

  141. 141.

    ICC Ongwen 2016a, para. 154.

  142. 142.

    See discussion in Huyghebaert 2009, 67–68.

  143. 143.

    Vigh 2008, 11.

  144. 144.

    Branch 2017, 41.

  145. 145.

    Honwana 2000, 75–76.

  146. 146.

    Schmidt 2007, 60.

  147. 147.

    Honwana 2000, 75–76. See Quénivet 2013, 1106; Fisher 2013, 73 and 81. In peacetime it is argued that juveniles make decisions based on the ‘best and immediate interests rather than an abstract code of norms that exists only outside the immediate context’. Fagan cited in Dore 2007–2008, fn 142.

  148. 148.

    See Baines 2009, 182; Drumbl 2012, 91.

  149. 149.

    Branch 2017, 41.

  150. 150.

    See Macdonald and Porter 2016.

  151. 151.

    Achton Thomas 2013, 9.

  152. 152.

    Brett and Specht 2004, 31.

  153. 153.

    McDiarmid 2016, 331.

  154. 154.

    Wessells 2006, 142.

  155. 155.

    Grant 2016, 12; Eser 2016, 1153. See also Ambos 2013, 359; Cryer et al. 2014, 408–409; Knoops 2003, 71; Krebs 2013, 408.

  156. 156.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 241; Eser 2016, 1153; Ambos 2013, 359. ‘The test is similar, but not necessarily identical, to that of proportionality in self-defence.’ Cryer et al. 2014, 408. See US Krupp et al. 1948, 1443, 1445 and 1446.

  157. 157.

    Robinson 1982, 219; Colvin 1990, 388; Joyce 2015, 639.

  158. 158.

    Colvin 1990, 399; Cassese et al. 2011, 479. See ICTY Erdemović 1997b, para. 82.

  159. 159.

    See Ambos 2013, 359; Cryer et al. 2014, 408; Eser 2016, 1153.

  160. 160.

    Ambos 2013, 359; Cryer et al. 2014, 408;

  161. 161.

    See Krebs 2013, 408–409.

  162. 162.

    UK Howe 1987, Lord Hailsham of St. Marylebone.

  163. 163.

    See Berman 2003, 65; Fletcher 2000, 831; Byrd 1987, 1308.

  164. 164.

    ICC Ongwen 2016a, para. 155. See discussion on whether Ongwen was reasonable in Grant 2016, 15.

  165. 165.

    Sadly, military life often presents the child soldier with the only hope of building a future due to a lack of education, exacerbated by war. See Wessells 2006, 49–50.

  166. 166.

    Achton Thomas 2013, 13.

  167. 167.

    McDiarmid 2016, 333. See Steinl 2017, 253; Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, 7.

  168. 168.

    Dore 2007–2008, 1304 and 1309.

  169. 169.

    Fagan cited in Dore 2007–2008, fn 142.

  170. 170.

    Grossman 2007, 347.

  171. 171.

    Grover 2005, 233. See Steinl 2017, 253.

  172. 172.

    UK Camplin 1978, 717. See Singer 2005, 154.

  173. 173.

    Dore 2007–2008, 1304. See Singer 2005, 109.

  174. 174.

    Park 2014, 49.

  175. 175.

    Boyden 2003, 351; Boothby and Thomson 2013, 741. For a comprehensive discussion of the effects of violence on children, generally see Weaver et al. 2008, 96–112.

  176. 176.

    Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers 2001, 7; Dutli 1990, 421.

  177. 177.

    Amone-P’Olak et al. 2007, 656; Wainryb 2011, 283.

  178. 178.

    Souris 2017, 323. In relation to girl child soldiers, see Quénivet and Shah-Davis 2008, 122.

  179. 179.

    Quénivet 2014, 73.

  180. 180.

    Faulkner 2001, 499. For a critique of this stylised presentation of child soldiers, see Drumbl 2012, 89.

  181. 181.

    Custer 2005, 470. See generally Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, 30–31; Trenholm et al. 2012, 220.

  182. 182.

    See discussion in Wainryb 2011, 275.

  183. 183.

    Posada and Wainryb 2008, 893–894.

  184. 184.

    See Boyden 2003, 354.

  185. 185.

    See Maclure and Denov 2006, 126.

  186. 186.

    Baines 2009, 178.

  187. 187.

    Haer and Böhmelt 2016, 413.

  188. 188.

    Wainryb 2011, 283.

  189. 189.

    Triffterer and Clark 2016, 1034; Eccles 1999, 31 and 33–34.

  190. 190.

    See Betancourt 2011, 308–309.

  191. 191.

    East Timor Tribunal X 2002, para. 59.

  192. 192.

    See Wessells 2006, 46–47; Singer 2005, 71; Murphy 2003, 62.

  193. 193.

    Derluyn et al. 2015, 33.

  194. 194.

    See Okello et al. 2013, 718–720; Amone-P’Olak et al. 2014, 425; Amone-P’Olak et al. 2007, 665.

  195. 195.

    Klasen et al. 2010, 576.

  196. 196.

    Amone-P’Olak et al. 2015, 163.

  197. 197.

    Happold 2005, 18.

  198. 198.

    See discussion in Posada and Wainryb 2008, 893–896 in relation to children asked about theft and acts of revenge.

  199. 199.

    Olusanya 2010, 72. More fundamentally, Mohamed explains ‘[a]cknowledging their humanity might be alarming; it forces us to reckon with the idea that, if they are capable of committing these horrors, then perhaps we all might be able to do the same. At the same time, acknowledging the ordinary humanity of perpetrators is productive, because it forces us to examine the choices they made, and the paths that led them to commit their crimes.’ Mohamed 2015, 1165.

  200. 200.

    ICC Statute, Art. 31(1)(d); Ambos 2013, 359; Dinstein 2000, 374.

  201. 201.

    Robinson 1982, 219. See US Krupp et al. 1948, 1446 that refers to ‘a worse plight’. See Eser 2016, 1154.

  202. 202.

    ICTY Erdemović 1997a, para. 16. See Eser 2016, 1154.

  203. 203.

    UK Dudley 1884. See Bassiouni 2013, 442–443; Cryer et al. 2014, 408; Fletcher 2000, 823–825.

  204. 204.

    Joyce 2015, 640; Stahn 2019, 154.

  205. 205.

    Weigend 2012, 1224. See ICTY Erdemović 1997b, para. 81; Cassese et al. 2011, 478.

  206. 206.

    See Joyce 2015, 627.

  207. 207.

    Stahn 2019, 154.

  208. 208.

    Ambos 1999, 27.

  209. 209.

    Werle and Jessberger 2014, 243; Knoops 2008, 59–60. See also Ambos 2006–2007, 660; Weigend 2012, 1224; Heim 2013, 168.

  210. 210.

    Risacher 2013–2014, 1417; Dinstein 2000, 373.

  211. 211.

    Custer 2005, 470; Reis 1997, 752.

  212. 212.

    Posada and Wainryb 2008, 893–896.

  213. 213.

    Ambos 2002, 1037. See Eser 2016, 1154–1155; Fletcher 2007, 322.

  214. 214.

    Arenson 2014, 70. See Ambos 2013, 347 and 359.

  215. 215.

    Chiesa 2008, 757.

  216. 216.

    ICTY Erdemović 1997b, para. 80.

  217. 217.

    Arenson 2014, 78.

  218. 218.

    See Fichtelberg 2008, 24.

  219. 219.

    Singer 2005, 154; Happold 2005, 32; Cohn and Goodwin-Gill 1994, 23.

  220. 220.

    Singer 2005, 154. See McDiarmid 2006, 85–86.

  221. 221.

    United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child 2007.

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  1. Faculty of Law, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa

    Windell Nortje

  2. Bristol Law School, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

    Noëlle Quénivet

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Nortje, W., Quénivet, N. (2020). The Application of the Requirements of Duress to Child Soldiers. In: Child Soldiers and the Defence of Duress under International Criminal Law. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20663-5_3

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