Skip to main content

Sexual Abuse and Masculine Cultures: Reflections on the British Football Scandal of 2016

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Palgrave Handbook of Masculinity and Sport

Abstract

Drawing on the assumption that it is possible to learn a great deal about cultures by analysing circumstances where routine thoughts and conceptions of ‘normal’ practice are radically disturbed, this chapter investigates the views of a self-selecting sample of male amateur and semi-professional football players (current and former) towards the child sexual abuse scandal that rocked British football in 2016. By exploring how agents make sense of what has been uncovered, this chapter raises polarising views that are indicative of a culture in the process of transition. Focusing on the social environment that surrounds men’s football, it illustrates how historically embedded hyper-masculine cultures can encourage the reproduction of the ‘archetypical’ strong, silent male—a situation that is thought to discourage the public disclosure of sexual abuse. In contrast, this chapter also draws attention to the process of cultural change. Contemporary football cultures are thought by some to provide an inclusive, supportive environment that welcomes multiple masculinities and encourages all players to share personal problems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, M. (2011). Artistic impressions: Figure skating, masculinity and the limits of sport. Toronto, ON, Canada: University of Toronto Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Alaggia, R., & Millington, G. (2008). Male child sexual abuse: A phenomenology of betrayal. Clinical Social Work Journal, 36, 265–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (2005). In the game: Gay athletes and the cult of masculinity. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (2008). “Being masculine is not about who you sleep with…” Hetrosexual athletes contesting masculinity and the one-time rule of homosexuality. Sex Roles, 58(1–2), 104–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (2009). Inclusive masculinity: The changing nature of masculinities. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E. (2015). Assessing the sociology of sport: On changing masculinities and homophobia. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50(4–5), 363–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E., Adams, A., & Rivers, I. (2012). ‘I Kiss Them Because I Love Them’: The emergence of heterosexual men kissing in British institutes of education. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(2), 421–430.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E., & McGuire, R. (2010). Inclusive masculinity theory and the politics of men’s rugby. Journal of Gender Studies, 19(3), 249–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, A., & Duncan, S. (1985). Child sexual abuse: A study of prevalence in Great Britain. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 457–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman, Z. (2007). Consuming life. Cambridge: Polity Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brackenridge, C. H. (2001). Spoilsports: Understanding and preventing sexual exploitation in sport. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brackenridge, C. H. (2003). Child protection in Football Research Project 2003: Final Report. Independent Football Commission.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burstyn, V. (1999). The rites of men: Manhood, culture and the politics of sport. London: University of Toronto Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Cashmore, E. (2002). Beckham. London: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cashmore, E., & Cleland, J. (2012). Glasswing butterflies: Gay professional football players and their culture. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 35(4), 420–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cashmore, E., Cleland, J., & Dixon, K. (2018). Screen society. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, J. (2015). Discussing homosexuality on association football fan message boards: A changing cultural context. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50(2), 125–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleland, J., Magrath, R., & Kian, E. (2018). The internet as a site of decreasing homophobia in assiciation football: An online response by fans to the coming out of Thomas Hitzlsperger. Men and Masculinities, 21(1), 91–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clements, B., & Field, C. (2014). Public opinion towards homosexuality and gay rights in Great Britain. Public Opinion Quarterly, 78, 523–547.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coakley, J. (2009). Sports in society: Issues and controversies (10th ed.). London: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conn, D. (2016, December 29). Child abuse in sport and the progress made towards eradicating it. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/football/2016/dec/29/fa-child-protection-work-celia-brackenridge

  • Connell, R. W. (1987). Masculinities. London: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). London: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corby, B. (2000). Child abuse: Towards a knowledge base (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, S. (2018, March 20) Former player ‘angered’ by Chelsea handling of abuse. i News. Retrieved from https://inews.co.uk/sport/football/chelsea-sex-abuse-football-eddie-heath/

  • Dale, K., & Alper, J. (2007). Hiding behind the cloth: Child sexual abuse and the Catholic Church. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 16(3), 59–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, K. (2013). Consuming football in late modern life. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorahy, M. (2010). The impact of disassociation, shame, and guilt on interpersonal relationships in chronically traumatized individuals: A pilot study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 653–656.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorahy, M., & Clearwater, K. (2012). Shame and guilt in men exposed to childhood sexual abuse: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21, 155–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning, E. (1986). Sport as a male preserve: Notes on the social sources of masculine identity and its transformations. Theory, Culture and Society, 3(1), 79–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, K. with Holt, O. (2018). Old too soon, smart too late. London: Headline.

    Google Scholar 

  • Etherington, K. (2000). Narrative approaches to working with adult male survivors of child sexual abuse: The clients’, the councillor’s and the research story. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fasting, K., Brackenridge, C. H., & Walseth, K. (2002). Coping with sexual harassment in sport: Experiences of elite female athletes. The Journal of Sexual Aggression, 8(2), 16–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, M. (2002). Traumatic injuries caused by hazing practices. American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 20, 228–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., Araji, S., Baron, L., Brown, A., Peters, S., & Wyatt, G. (1986). A sourcebook on child sexual abuse. London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaston, L., Magrath, R., & Anderson, E. (2017). From hegemonic to inclusive masculinities in English professional football: Marking a cultural shift. Journal of Gender Studies, 27(3), 301–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, B. (2018, January 27). ‘I was molested by Dr Larry Nassar’: How the gymnastics sexual abuse scandal unfolded. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2018/jan/27/larry-nassar-trial-gymnastics-sexual-abuse

  • Hansard (2016, September 15). Child sexual abuse: Football clubs. Question for short debate as tabled by Lord Addington (1.45pm) Volume 777.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartill, M. (2009). The sexual abuse of boys in organised male sports. Men and Masculinities, 12(2), 225–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herbert, I. (2013, December 10). Former England Captain Mick Mills ‘turned a blind eye’ to initiation ceremony abuse at Stoke City, which included sexual assault dubbed ‘the glove’. Independent. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/news-and-comment/former-england-captain-mick-mills-turned-a-blind-eye-to-initiation-ceremony-abuse-at-stoke-city-8995903.html

  • Hunter, R. (Ed.). (1990). The sexually abused male: Prevalence, impact and treatment (Vol. 1). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis, N. (2013). The inclusive masculinities of heterosexual men within UK gay sports clubs. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50(3), 283–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy, S. (2006). Why i didn’t say anything: The Sheldon Kennedy story. Toronto: Insomniac Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kian, E., Anderson, E., Vincent, J., & Murray, R. (2015). Sport journalists’ views on gay men in sport, society and within sport media. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50(8), 895–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing Masculinities (pp. 119–141). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, S., Greaves, L., & Hankivsky, O. (2000). The dome of silence: Sexual harassment and abuse in sport. London: Zed Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, S., & Wintrup, G. (2002). Running the gauntlet: An examination of initiation/hazing and sexual abuse in sport. Journal of Sexual Aggression, 8(2), 49–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kivel, P. (1999). Boys will be men: Raising our sons for courage, caring and community. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 451–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loseke, D. (2003). ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident’: Problems in pondering the paedophile priest problem. Sexualities, 6(1), 16–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magrath, R., Anderson, E., & Roberts, S. (2015). On the door-step of equality: Attitudes toward gay athletes among academy-level footballers. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 50(7), 804–821.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mendel, M. P. (1995). The male survivor: The impact of sexual abuse. London: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • NSPCC (2018). Sexual abuse: What is sexual abuse? Retrieved from https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-abuse-and-neglect/child-sexual-abuse/

  • O’Leary, P., Easton, S., & Gould, N. (2017). The effect of child sexual abuse on men: Towards a male sensitive measure. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(3), 423–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parent, S., & Bannon, J. (2012). Sexual abuse in sport: What about boys? Children and Youth Services Review, 34, 354–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, A. (2006). Lifelong learning to labour: Apprenticeship, masculinity and communities of practice. British Educational Research Journal, 32, 687–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, A., & Manley, A. (2016). Identity. In E. Cashmore & K. Dixon (Eds.), Studying football (pp. 97–112). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redhead, S. (2017). Theoretical times. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, S. (2003). ‘If I let a goal in i’ll get beat up:’ Contradictions in masculinity, sport and health. Health Education Research, 18(6), 706–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roderick, M. (2006). The work of professional football: A labour of love? London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Romano, E., & De Luca, R. (2001). Male sexual abuse: A review of effects, abuse characteristics, and links with later psychological functioning. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 6(1), 55–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, D., & McKay, J. (1999). Is sport still a man’s game? Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies, 3(2), 113–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sepler, F. (1990). Victim advocacy and young male victims of sexual abuse: An evolutionary model. In M. Hunter (Ed.), The sexually abused male, vol. 1: Prevalence, impact and treatment. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spiegel, J. (2003). Sexual abuse of males: The SAM model of theory and practice. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, P. (2018). Damaged: My story. London: Sport Media.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M. (2008). The association game: A history of British football. London: Pearson Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Telegraph. (2016, November 29). Eric Bristow sacked by sky sports after sparking outrage for calling footballers ‘wimps’ in sex abuse scandal. The Telegraph. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/11/29/eric-bristow-sparks-outrage-calling-footballers-wimps-sex-abuse/

  • Tomlinson, A., & Yorganci, I. (1997). Male coach/female athlete relations: Gender and power relations in competitive sport. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 21(2), 134–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kevin Dixon .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Dixon, K. (2020). Sexual Abuse and Masculine Cultures: Reflections on the British Football Scandal of 2016. In: Magrath, R., Cleland, J., Anderson, E. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Masculinity and Sport. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19799-5_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19799-5_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-19798-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-19799-5

  • eBook Packages: Social SciencesSocial Sciences (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics