Abstract
X-ray polarimetry is an “old” field in Astronomy which is rapidly evolving, thanks to the development of sensitive instrumentation and to mission proposals arrived at a various stages of implementation. It was recognised, since the dawn of X-ray Astronomy, as a formidable tool for the comprehension of the emission mechanisms and of the geometry at work in extreme gravitational and/or magnetic fields. We will review the subject of X-ray polarimetry spanning from 0.1 to 100 keV describing the different major principles of detection. We will show their practical implementation following the historical evolution of this subject from the past experiment to future (at the time of writing) expectations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Afanas’ev RM, Imanove RM, Pashaev EM, Peregudov VE, Abdullaev MI (1988) Sov Phys Solid State 30(6):1004
Auger MP (1920) Sur l’ effect photoelectrique composé. J Phys Radium 6:205–208
Austin RA, Minamitani T, Ramsey BD (1994) Development of a hard x-ray imaging polarimeter. In: Fineschi S (ed) X-Ray and ultraviolet polarimetry, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 2010, pp 118–125
Bellazzini R, Angelini F, Baldini L, Bitti F, Brez A, Ceccanti M, Latronico L, Massai MM, Minuti M, Omodei N, Razzano M, Sgro C, Spandre G, Costa E, Soffitta P (2004) Reading a GEM with a VLSI pixel ASIC used as a direct charge collecting anode. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 535:477–484
Bellazzini R, Spandre G, Minuti M, Baldini L, Brez A, Cavalca F, Latronico L, Omodei N, Massai MM, Sgro’ C, Costa E, Soffitta P, Krummenacher F, de Oliveira R (2006) Direct reading of charge multipliers with a self-triggering CMOS analog chip with 105 k pixels at 50 μm pitch. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 566:552
Bellazzini R, Angelini F, Baldini L, Bitti F, Brez A, Cavalca F, Del Prete M, Kuss M, Latronico L, Omodei N, Pinchera M, Massai MM, Minuti M, Razzano M, Sgro C, Spandre G, Tenze A, Costa E, Soffitta P (2006) Gas pixel detectors for X-ray polarimetry applications. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 560:425–434
Bellazzini R, Spandre G, Minuti M, Baldini L, Brez A, Latronico L, Omodei N, Razzano M, Massai MM, Pesce-Rollins M, Sgró C, Costa E, Soffitta P, Sipila H, Lempinen E (2007) A sealed gas pixel detector for X-ray astronomy. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 579:853
Black J, Baker RG, Deines-Jones P, Hill JE, Jahoda K (2007) X-ray polarimetry with a micropattern TPC. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 551:755–760
Buschhorn G, Kotthaus R, Kufner W, Rössl W, Rzepka M, Schmidt KH, Genz H, Gräf HD, Hoffmann-Stascheck P, Nething U, Richter A, Dix W-R, Illing G, Lohmann M, Pflüger J, Reime B, Schildwächter L (1994) X-ray polarimetry using the photoeffect in a CCD detector. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 346:578–588
Chattopadhyay T, Vadawale SV, Shanmugam M, Goyal SK (2014) Measurement of low energy detection efficiency of a plastic scintillator: implications on the lower energy limit and sensitivity of a hard X-Ray focal plane compton polarimeter. Astrophys J Suppl Ser 212:12
Compton A, Allison SK (1935) X-rays in theory and experiment. D. Van Nostrand, New York
Costa E, Cinti MN, Feroci M, Matt G, Rapisarda M (1995) Design of a scattering polarimeter for hard X-ray astronomy. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 366:161–172
Costa E, Soffitta P, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Lumb N, Spandre G (2001) An efficient photoelectric X-ray polarimeter for the study of black holes and neutron stars. Nature 411:662
Elsner RF, O’Dell SL, Weisskopf MC (2012) Measuring x-ray polarization in the presence of systematic effects: known background. In: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 8443
Evans KD, Hall R, Lewis M (1977) The calibration of Bragg X-ray analyser crystals for use as polarimeters in X-ray astronomy. Space Sci Instrum 3:163
Fabiani S, Bellazzini R, Berrilli F, Brez A, Costa E, Minuti M, Muleri F, Pinchera M, Rubini A, Soffitta P, Spandre G (2012a) Performance of an Ar-DME imaging photoelectric polarimeter. In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2012: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 8443, p 84431C
Fabiani S, Costa E, Bellazzini R, Brez A, di Cosimo S, Lazzarotto F, Muleri F, Rubini A, Soffitta P, Spandre G (2012b) The gas pixel detector as a solar X-ray polarimeter and imager. Adv Space Res 49:143–149
Fabiani S, Campana R, Costa E, Del Monte E, Muleri F, Rubini A, Soffitta P (2013) Characterization of scatterers for an active focal plane Compton polarimeter. Astropart Phys 44:91–101
Feng H, Jiang W, Minuti M, Wu Q, Jung A, Yang D, Citraro S, Nasimi H, Yu J, Jin G, Huang J, Zeng M, An P, Baldini L, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Latronico L, Sgrò C, Spandre G, Pinchera M, Muleri F, Soffitta P, Costa E (2019) PolarLight: a CubeSat X-ray polarimeter based on the gas pixel detector. Exp Astron 47(1–2):225–243
Gowen RA, Cooke BA, Griffiths RE, Ricketts MJ (1977) An upper limit to the linear X-ray polarization of SCO X-1. Mon Not R Astron Soc 179:303–310
Griffiths RE, Ricketts MJ, Cooke BA (1976) Observations of the X-ray nova A0620-00 with the Ariel V crystal spectrometer/polarimeter. Mon Not R Astron Soc 177:429–440
Heilmann RK, Bruccoleri AR, Kolodziejczak J, Gaskin JA, O’Dell SL, Bhatia R, Schattenburg ML (2016) Critical-angle x-ray transmission grating spectrometer with extended band pass and resolving power > 10,000. In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2016: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 9905, p 99051X
Holland AD, Short ADT, Fraser GW, Turner MJL (1995) The X-ray polarisation sensitivity of CCDs. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 355:526–531
Hughes JP, Long KS, Novick R (1984) A search for X-ray polarization in cosmic X-ray sources. Astrophys J 280:255
Ingram AR, Maccarone TJ (2017) An observational method for fast stochastic X-ray polarimetry timing. Mon Not R Astron Soc 471:4206–4217
Ingram A, Maccarone TJ, Poutanen J, Krawczynski H (2015) Polarization modulation from lense-thirring precession in X-Ray binaries. Astrophys J 807:53
Iskef H, Cunningham JW, Watt DE (1983) Projected ranges and effective stopping powers of electrons with energy between 20 eV and 10 keV. Phys Med Biol 28:535–545
Jahoda KM, Black JK, Hill JE, Kallman TR, Kaaret PE, Markwardt CB, Okajima T, Petre R, Soong Y, Strohmayer TE, Tamagawa T, Tawara Y (2014) X-ray polarization capabilities of a small explorer mission. In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2014: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 9144, p 91440N
Jahoda K, Kallman TR, Kouveliotou C, Angelini L, Black JK, Hill JE, Jaeger T, Kaaret PE, Markwardt CB, Okajima T, Petre R, Schnittman J, Soong Y, Strohmayer TE, Tamagawa T, Tawara Y (2016) The polarimeter for relativistic astrophysical X-ray sources. In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2016: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 9905, p 990516
Jourdain E, Roques JP, Chauvin M, Clark DJ (2012) Separation of two contributions to the high energy emission of cygnus X-1: polarization measurements with INTEGRAL SPI. Astrophys J 761:27
Kaaret P, Novick R, Martin C, Hamilton T, Sunyaev R, Lapshov I, Silver E, Weisskopf M, Elsner R, Chanan G, Manzo G, Costa E, Fraser G, Perola GC (1989) SXRP. A focal plane stellar X-ray polarimeter for the SPECTRUM-X-Gamma mission. In: Hoover RB (ed) Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 1160, pp 587–597
Kaaret PE, Schwartz J, Soffitta P, Dwyer J, Shaw PS, Hanany S, Novick R, Sunyaev R, Lapshov IY, Silver EH, Ziock KP, Weisskopf MC, Elsner RF, Ramsey BD, Costa E, Rubini A, Feroci M, Piro L, Manzo G, Giarrusso S, Santangelo AE, Scarsi L, Perola GC, Massaro E, Matt G (1994) Status of the stellar x-ray polarimeter for the spectrum-X-Gamma mission. In: Fineschi S (ed) Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 2010, pp 22–27
Kislat F, Clark B, Beilicke M, Krawczynski H (2015) Analyzing the data from X-ray polarimeters with Stokes parameters. Astropart Phys 68:45–51
Kislat F, Beheshtipour B, Dowkontt P, Guarino V, Lanzi RJ, Okajima T, Braun D, Cannon S, de Geronimo G, Heatwole S, Hoorman J, Li S, Mori H, Shreves CM, Stuchlik D, Krawczynski H (2017) Design of the telescope truss and gondola for the balloon-borne X-ray polarimeter X-Calibur. J. Astron. Instrum. 6:1740003
Kislat F, Abarr Q, Beheshtipour B, De Geronimo G, Dowkontt P, Tang J, Krawczynski H (2018) Optimization of the design of X-Calibur for a long-duration balloon flight and results from a one-day test flight. J Astron. Telescopes Instrum. Syst. 4(1):011004
Kotthaus R, Buschhorn G, Rzepka M, Schmidt KH, Weinmann PM (1998) Hard x-ray polarimetry exploiting directional information of the photoeffect in a charge coupled device. In: Fineschi S (ed) X-Ray and ultraviolet spectroscopy and polarimetry II, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 3443, pp 105–116
Krawczynski H, Matt G, Ingram AR et al (2019) Using X-ray polarimetry to probe the physics of black holes and neutron stars. arXiv e-prints, arXiv:1904.09313
La Monaca A, Costa E, Soffitta P, di Persio G, Manzan M, Martino B, Patria G, Cappuccio G, Zema N (1998) A new photoelectron imager for X-ray astronomical polarimetry. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 416:267–277
Long KS, Chanan GA, Ku W, Novick R (1979) The linear X-ray polarization of Scorpius X-1. Astrophys J 232:L107–L110
Long KS, Chanan GA, Novick R (1980) The X-ray polarization of the Cygnus sources. Astrophys J 238:710–716
Maitra C, Paul B (2011) Prospect of polarization measurements from black hole binaries in their thermal state with a scattering polarimeter. Mon Not R Astron Soc 414:2618–2628
Marshall HL, Schulz NS, Windt DL, Gullikson EM, Craft M, Blake E, Ross C (2015) The use of laterally graded multilayer mirrors for soft x-ray polarimetry. In: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 9603, p 960319
Marshall HL, Günther HM, Heilmann RK, Schulz NS, Egan M, Hellickson T, Heine SNT, Windt DL, Gullikson EM, Ramsey B, Tagliaferri G, Pareschi G (2018) Design of a broadband soft x-ray polarimeter. J. Astron. Telescopes Instru. Syst. 4(1):011005
Massaro E, Fabiani S, Campana R, Costa E, Del Monte E, Muleri F, Soffitta P (2018) Correlation methods for the analysis of X-ray polarimetric signals. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 885:7–14
Muleri F, Soffitta P, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Costa E, Fabiani S, Frutti M, Minuti M, Negri MB, Pascale P, Rubini A, Sindoni G, Spandre G (2007) A very compact polarizer for an X-ray polarimeter calibration. In: Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 6686, p 668610
Muleri F, Soffitta P, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Costa E, Frutti M, Mastropietro M, Morelli E, Pinchera M, Rubini A, Spandre G (2008) A versatile facility for the calibration of x-ray polarimeters with polarized radiation. In: Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 7011-84
Muleri F, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Costa E, Fabiani S, Minuti M, Pinchera M, Rubini A, Soffitta P, Spandre G (2012) A new design for the gas pixel detector. In: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 8443
Muleri F, Lefevre C, Piazzolla R, Morbidini A, Amici F, Attina P, Centrone M, Del Monte E, Di Cosimo S, Di Persio G, Evangelista Y, Fabiani S, Ferrazzoli R, Loffredo P, Maiolo L, Maita F, Primicino L, Rankin J, Rubini A, Santoli F, Soffitta P, Tobia A, Tortosa A, Trois A (2018) Calibration of the IXPE instrument. In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2018: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 10699, pp 106995C
Novick R, Weisskopf MC, Berthelsdorf R, Linke R, Wolff RS (1972) Detection of X-Ray polarization of the crab nebula. Astrophys J 174:L1
O’Dell SL et al. (2018) The imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE): technical overview. In Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 10699, p 106991
Riegler GJ, Garmire GP, Moore WE, Stevens JC (1970) A low energy X-ray polarimeter. Bull Am Phys Soc 15:635
Rishin PV et al (2010) Development of a Thomson X-ray polarimeter, p 83
Sakurai H, Tokanai F, Gunji S, Motegi S, Toyokawa H, Suzuki M, Hirota K, Kishimoto S (2004) Measurement of X-ray polarization using optical imaging detector with capillary plate. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 525:6–11
Salmi T, Nättilä J, Poutanen J (2018) Bayesian parameter constraints for neutron star masses and radii using X-ray timing observations of accretion-powered millisecond pulsars. Astron. Astrophys. 618:A161
Sanford PW, Cruise AM, Culhane JL (1970) Techniques for improving the sensitivity of proportional counters used in X-Ray astronomy. In: Gratton L (ed) Non-solar X- and gamma-ray astronomy, IAU Symposium, vol 37, p 35
Schnopper HW (1990) SODART telescope on spectrum-roentgen-gamma and its instrumentation. In: Kondo Y (ed) IAU Colloq. 123: observatories in earth orbit and beyond, Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol 166, pp 119–128
Schnopper HW, Kalata K (1969) Polarimeter for celestial X rays. Astronom J 74:854
Silver EH, Kestenbaum HL, Long KS, Novick R, Wolff RS, Weisskopf MC (1978) Search for X-ray polarization in the Crab pulsar. Astrophys J 225:221
Silver E, Holley J, Ziock K, Novick R, Kaaret P, Weisskopf M, Elsner R (1990) Bragg crystal polarimeters. Opt Eng 29:759–766
Soffitta P, Costa E, Morelli E, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Raffo R (1995) Sensitivity to x-ray polarization of a microgap gas proportional counter. In: Fineschi S (ed) X-Ray and EUV/FUV spectroscopy and polarimetry, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 2517, pp 156–163
Soffitta P, Costa E, Kaaret P, Dwyer J, Ford E, Tomsick J, Novick R, Nenonen S (1998) Proportional counters for the stellar X-ray polarimeter with a wedge and strip cathode pattern readout system. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 414:218–232
Soffitta P, Costa E, di Persio G, Morelli E, Rubini A, Bellazzini R, Brez A, Raffo R, Spandre G, Joy D (2001) Astronomical X-ray polarimetry based on photoelectric effect with microgap detectors. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 469:164–184
Strohmayer TE, Kallman TR (2013) On the statistical analysis of X-ray polarization measurements. Astrophys J 773:103
Swank J et al (2010) Gravity and extreme magnetism SMEX (GEMS). In: Bellazzini R, Costa E, Matt G, Tagliaferri G (eds) X-ray polarimetry: a new window in astrophysics by Ronaldo Bellazzini, Enrico Costa, Giorgio Matt and Gianpiero Tagliaferri. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 251, ISBN: 9780521191845
Tsunemi H, Hayashida K, Tamura K, Nomoto S, Wada M, Hirano A, Miyata E (1992) Detection of X-ray polarization with a charge coupled device. Nucl Inst Methods Phys Res A 321:629–631
Vaillancourt JE (2006) Placing confidence limits on polarization measurements. Publ Astron Soc Pac 118:1340–1343
Watts AL, Yu W, Poutanen J, Zhang S, Bhattacharyya S, Bogdanov S, Ji L, Patruno A, Riley TE, Bakala P, Baykal A, Bernardini F, Bombaci I, Brown E, Cavecchi Y, Chakrabarty D, Chenevez J, Degenaar N, Del Santo M, Di Salvo T, Doroshenko V, Falanga M, Ferdman RD, Feroci M, Gambino AF, Ge M, Greif SK, Guillot S, Gungor C, Hartmann DH, Hebeler K, Heger A, Homan J, Iaria R, Zand Ji, Kargaltsev O, Kurkela A, Lai X, Li A, Li X, Li Z, Linares M, Lu F, Mahmoodifar S, Méndez M, Coleman Miller M, Morsink S, Nättilä J, Possenti A, Prescod-Weinstein C, Qu J, Riggio A, Salmi T, Sanna A, Santangelo A, Schatz H, Schwenk A, Song L, Šrámková E, Stappers B, Stiele H, Strohmayer T, Tews I, Tolos L, Török G, Tsang D, Urbanec M, Vacchi A, Xu R, Xu Y, Zane S, Zhang G, Zhang S, Zhang W, Zheng S, Zhou X (2019) Dense matter with eXTP. Sci China Phys Mech Astron 62:29503
Weisskopf MC, Berthelsdorf R, Epstein G, Linke R, Mitchell D, Novick R, Wolff RS (1972) A graphite crystal polarimeter for stellar X-ray astronomy. Rev Sci Ins 43:967
Weisskopf MC, Cohen GG, Kestenbaum HL, Long KS, Novick R, Wolff RS (1976) Measurement of the X-ray polarization of the Crab Nebula. Astrophys J 208:L125
Weisskopf MC, Silver EH, Kestenbaum HL, Long KS, Novick R (1978) A precision measurement of the X-ray polarization of the Crab Nebula without pulsar contamination. Astrophys J 220:L117
Weisskopf MC, Elsner RF, O’Dell SL (2010) On understanding the figures of merit for detection and measurement of x-ray polarization. In: Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE) Conference Series, vol 7732
Weisskopf MC, Ramsey B, O’Dell SL, Tennant A, Elsner R, Soffita P, Bellazzini R, Costa E, Kolodziejczak J, Kaspi V, Mulieri F, Marshall H, Matt G, Romani R (2016) The imaging X-ray polarimetry explorer (IXPE). In: Space telescopes and instrumentation 2016: ultraviolet to gamma ray, Proceedings of Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol 9905, p 990517
Xiao H, Hajdas W, Wu B, Produit N, Bao T, Bernasconi T, Cadoux F, Dong Y, Egli K, Gauvin N, Kole M, Kramert R, Kong S, Li L, Li Z, Liu J, Liu X, Marcinkowski R, Rybka DK, Pohl M, Shi H, Song L, Sun J, Xiong S, Szabelski J, Socha P, Wang R, Wen X, Wu X, Zhang L, Zhang P, Zhang S, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Zwolinska A (2018) In-flight energy calibration of the space-borne Compton polarimeter POLAR. Astropart Phys 103:74–86
Yonetoku D, Murakami T, Gunji S, Mihara T, Sakashita T, Morihara Y, Kikuchi Y, Takahashi T, Fujimoto H, Toukairin N, Kodama Y, Kubo S, Ikaros Demonstration Team (2011) Gamma-ray burst polarimeter (GAP) aboard the small solar power sail demonstrator IKAROS. Publ Astron Soc Jpn 63:625–638
Yonetoku D, Murakami T, Gunji S, Mihara T, Toma K, Morihara Y, Takahashi T, Wakashima Y, Yonemochi H, Sakashita T, Toukairin N, Fujimoto H, Kodama Y (2012) Magnetic structures in gamma-ray burst jets probed by gamma-ray polarization. Astrophys J 758:L1
Zhang S et al (2019) The enhanced X-ray Timing and Polarimetry mission-eXTP. Sci China Phys Mech Atron 62:029502
Acknowledgements
The GPD project was funded by ASI, INAF and INFN during many years of development. Presently Paolo Soffitta and Enrico Costa acknowledge ASI for granting IXPE according to Accordo Attuativo n. 2017-12-H.0 with INAF.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Soffitta, P., Costa, E. (2019). X-Ray Polarimetry (Instrument/Techniques/Calibration). In: Mignani, R., Shearer, A., Słowikowska, A., Zane, S. (eds) Astronomical Polarisation from the Infrared to Gamma Rays. Astrophysics and Space Science Library, vol 460. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19715-5_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19715-5_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-19714-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-19715-5
eBook Packages: Physics and AstronomyPhysics and Astronomy (R0)