Abstract
Enhanced Efficiency Fertilizer (EEF) is a current and very important subject. These systems offer an effective way to improve nutrient efficiency, minimize fertilizer losses by physical, chemical and biological processes, and reduce environmental impact. Examples of such materials are: Slow Release Fertilizer (SRF), which releases the nutrient slower than a common fertilizer; and Controlled Release Fertilizer (CRF), when factors as release rate, pattern and release period can be controlled during its use. Ideally, it should be faster at the beginning and slower during cultivation, to meet the nutritional need of the plant, which changes over the growing period. Those materials have been developed in diverse platforms such as: (i) the matrix itself acts as a fertilizer, or (ii) the fertilizer is dispersed in a matrix, and/or (iii) the fertilizer is covered or encapsulate by a matrix, typically, polymeric or composites materials. The first EEF developed were made with synthetic polymers, mainly acrylamide-based ones. However, recent studies have proposed the use of environmentally friendly materials such as biodegradable polymers, clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The processes used to obtain EEFs are numerous, e.g. chemical and physical methods as polymerization, coacervation, coating, and (micro and nano) encapsulation. As the name suggests, encapsulation technique involves capsules preparation composed of a shell material completely around a chemical core material (nutrient). This shell provides a prolongation of nutrient release from the core. Once this shell is dissolved or ruptured the nutrient encapsulated is released. Even though encapsulation is not a novelty, its industry has rapidly innovated with new technologies applied to pharmaceutical, agricultural, cosmetic and food industries. In this chapter, we discuss the techniques to improve nutrient efficiency according to the materials and encapsulation methods used.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ariyanti, S., Man, Z., & Bustam, M. A. (2012). Improvement of hydrophobicity of urea modified tapioca starch film with lignin for slow release fertilizer. Advances in Materials Research, 626, 350–354. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.626.350.
Azeem, B., KuShaari, K., Man, Z. B., Basit, A., & Thanh, T. H. (2014). Review on materials & methods to produce controlled release coated urea fertilizer. Journal of Controlled Release, 181, 11–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.02.020.
Bortolin, A., Aouada, F. A., Mattoso, L. H. C., & Ribeiro, C. (2013). Nanocomposite PAAm/Methyl cellulose/montmorillonite hydrogel: Evidence of synergistic effects for the slow release of fertilizers. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 61(31), 7431–7439. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401273n.
Chávarri, M., Marañón, I., & Villarán, M. C. (2012). Encapsulation technology to protect probiotic bacteria. In Probiotics (pp. 501–540). Rijeka: InTech. https://doi.org/10.5772/50046.
Chen, P. W., Erb, R. M., & Studart, A. R. (2012). Designer polymer-based microcapsules made using microfluidics. Langmuir, 28(1), 144–152. https://doi.org/10.1021/la203088u.
Davidson, D., & Gu, F. X. (2012). Materials for sustained and controlled release of nutrients and molecules to support plant growth. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(4), 870–876. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf204092h.
dos Santos, B. R., Bacalhau, F. B., Pereira T dos, S., Souza, C. F., & Faez, R. (2015). Chitosan-montmorillonite microspheres: A sustainable fertilizer delivery system. Carbohydrate Polymers, 127, 340–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.03.064.
Dubey, S., Jhelum, V., & Patanjali, P. K. (2011). Controlled release agrochemicals formulations: A review. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research (India), 70, 105–112. http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/10970.
Feng, D., Bai, B., Wang, H., & Suo, Y. (2017). Novel fabrication of biodegradable superabsorbent microspheres with diffusion barrier through thermo-chemical modification and their potential agriculture applications for water holding and sustained release of fertilizer. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 65(29), 5896–5907. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.7b01849.
França, D., Medina, A. F., Messa, L. L., Souza, C. F., & Faez, R. (2018). Chitosan spray-dried microcapsule and microsphere as fertilizer host for swellable − controlled release materials. Carbohydrate Polymers, 196, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.05.014.
Fu, J., Wang, C., Chen, X., Huang, Z., & Chen, D. (2018). Classification research and types of slow controlled release fertilizers (SRFs) used – a review. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 49(17), 2219–2230. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2018.1499757.
Gutiérrez, T. J. (2018a). Processing nano- and microcapsules for industrial applications. In C. M. Hussain (Ed.), Handbook of nanomaterials for industrial applications (pp. 989–1011). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-813351-4.00057-2.
Gutiérrez, T. J. (2018b). Biological macromolecule composite films made from sagu starch and flour/poly(ε-caprolactone) blends processed by blending/thermo molding. Journal Polymers and the Environment, 26(9), 3902–3912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-018-1268-6.
Gutiérrez, T. J., & Álvarez, K. (2017). Biopolymers as microencapsulation materials in the food industry. In M. Masuelli & D. Renard (Eds.), Advances in physicochemical properties of biopolymers (pp. 296–322). https://doi.org/10.2174/9781681085449117010009.
Harmaen, A. S., Khalina, A., Ali, H. M., & Azowa, I. N. (2016). Thermal, morphological, and biodegradability properties of bioplastic fertilizer composites made of oil palm biomass, fertilizer, and poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-valerate). International Journal of Polymer Science, 2016, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3230109.
Hayashi, H. (1989). Drying technologies of foods – their history and future. Drying Technology, 7(2), 315–369. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781107415324.004.
He, P., Davis, S. S., & Illum, L. (1999). Chitosan microspheres prepared by spray drying. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 187(1), 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5173(99)00125-8.
Julinová, M., Slavík, R., Vyoralová, M., Kalendová, A., & Alexy, P. (2018). Utilization of waste lignin and hydrolysate from chromium tanned waste in blends of hot-melt extruded pva-starch. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 26(4), 1459–1472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-017-1050-1.
Kašpar, O., Jakubec, M., & Štěpánek, F. (2013a). Characterization of spray dried chitosan-TPP microparticles formed by two- and three-fluid nozzles. Powder Technology, 240, 31–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.07.010.
Kašpar, O., Tokárová, V., Nyanhongo, G. S., Gübitz, G., & Štěpánek, F. (2013b). Effect of cross-linking method on the activity of spray-dried chitosan microparticles with immobilized laccase. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 91(4), 525–533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2013.06.001.
Kim, J. W., Utada, A. S., Fernández-Nieves, A., Hu, Z., & Weitz, D. A. (2007). Fabrication of monodisperse gel shells and functional microgels in microfluidic devices. Angewandte Chemie (International Ed. in English), 46(11), 1819–1822. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200604206.
Kokini, J. L. (1993). The effect of processing history on chemical changes in single- and twin-screw extruders. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 4(10), 324–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/0924-2244(93)90102-G.
Legako, J., & Dunford, N. T. (2010). Effect of spray nozzle design on fish oil-whey protein microcapsule properties. Journal of Food Science, 75(6), E394–E400. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01708.x.
Liang, R., Liu, M., & Wu, L. (2007). Controlled release NPK compound fertilizer with the function of water retention. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 67(9), 769–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2006.12.007.
Lubkowski, K. (2014). Coating fertilizer granules with biodegradable materials for controlled fertilizer release. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 13(10), 2573–2581.
Majeed, Z., Ramli, N. K., Mansor, N., & Man, Z. (2015). A comprehensive review on biodegradable polymers and their blends used in controlled-release fertilizer processes. Reviews in Chemical Engineering, 31(1), 69–95. https://doi.org/10.1515/revce-2014-0021.
Merino, D., Gutiérrez, T. J., Mansilla, A. Y., Casalongué, C. A., & Alvarez, V. A. (2018a). Critical evaluation of starch-based antibacterial nanocomposites as agricultural mulch films: Study on their interactions with water and light. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 6(11), 15662–15672. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.8b04162.
Merino, D., Mansilla, A. Y., Gutiérrez, T. J., Casalongué, C. A., & Alvarez, V. A. (2018b). Chitosan coated-phosphorylated starch films: Water interaction, transparency and antibacterial properties. Reactive and Functional Polymers, 131, 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2018.08.012.
Merino, D., Gutiérrez, T. J., & Alvarez, V. A. (2019a). Potential agricultural mulch films based on native and phosphorylated corn starch with and without surface functionalization with chitosan. Journal Polymers and the Environment, 27(1), 97–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-018-1325-1.
Merino, D., Gutiérrez, T. J., & Alvarez, V. A. (2019b). Structural and thermal properties of agricultural mulch films based on native and oxidized corn starch nanocomposites. Starch-Stärke, 71(7–8), 1800341. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201800341.
Messa, L., Froes, J. D., Souza, C., & Faez, R. (2016). Híbridos de quitosana-argila para encapsulamento e liberação sustentada do fertilizante nitrato de potássio. Quim Nova, 39(10), 1215–1220. https://doi.org/10.21577/0100-4042.20160133.
Milani, P., França, D., Balieiro, A. G., & Faez, R. (2017). Polymers and its applications in agriculture. Polímeros, 27(3), 256–266. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-1428.09316.
Mukerabigwi, J. F., Wang, Q., Ma, X., Liu, M., Lei, S., Wei, H., Xueing, H., & Cao, Y. (2015). Urea fertilizer coated with biodegradable polymers and diatomite for slow release and water retention. Journal of Coating Technology and Research, 12(6), 1085–1094. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-015-9703-2.
Navarro-Guajardo, N., García-Carrillo, E. M., Espinoza-González, C., Téllez-Zablah, R., Dávila-Hernández, F., Romero-García, J., Ledezma-Pérez, A., Mercado-Silva, J. A., Torres, C. A. P., & Pariona, N. (2018). Candelilla wax as natural slow-release matrix for fertilizers encapsulated by spray chilling. Journal of Renewable Materials, 6(3), 226–236. https://doi.org/10.7569/jrm.2017.634164.
Naz, M. Y., & Sulaiman, S. A. (2016). Slow release coating remedy for nitrogen loss from conventional urea: A review. Journal of Controlled Release, 225, 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.01.037.
Nguyen, N-T., Kwok, Y-C., Tan, H. Y., Loke, W. K. (2009). Polymeric labs on a chip for sustainable development, Paper No. MNHMT2009-18156, 53–57. https://doi.org/10.1115/MNHMT2009-18156.
Ni, B., Liu, M., Lü, S., Xie, L., & Wang, Y. (2011). Environmentally friendly slow-release nitrogen fertilizer. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59(18), 10169–10175. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf202131z.
Oliveira BF (2005) Preparação de microesferas de quitosana por spray drying com diferentes tipos de reticulação para uso na vacinação gênica. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/reposip/267440
Pereira, E. I., Minussi, F. B., Cruz, C. C. T., Bernardi, A. C., & Ribeiro, C. (2012). Urea − Montmorillonite-extruded nanocomposites: A novel slow- release material. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60(21), 5267–5272. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf3001229.
Pereira, E. I., Da Cruz, C. C. T., Solomon, A., Le, A., Cavigelli, M. A., & Ribeiro, C. (2015). Novel slow-release nanocomposite nitrogen fertilizers: The impact of polymers on nanocomposite properties and function. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 54(14), 3717–3725. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.5b00176.
Pillai, C. K. S. (2010). Challenges for natural monomers and polymers: Novel design strategies and engineering to develop advanced polymers. Designed Monomers and Polymers, 13(2), 87–121. https://doi.org/10.1163/138577210X12634696333190.
Schrooyen, P. M. M., van der Meer, R., De Kruif, C. G. (2001) Microencapsulation: its application in nutrition. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 60 (4):475–479.
Qiao, D., Zou, W., Liu, X., Yu, L., Chen, L., Liu, H., & Zhang, N. (2012). Starch modification using a twin-roll mixer as a reactor. Starch/Stärke, 64(10), 821–825. https://doi.org/10.1002/star.201200044.
Qiao, D., Liu, H., Yu, L., Bao, X., Simon, G. P., Petinakis, E., & Chen, L. (2016). Preparation and characterization of slow-release fertilizer encapsulated by starch-based superabsorbent polymer. Carbohydrate Polymers, 147, 146–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.04.010.
Ramli, R. A., Laftah, W. A., & Hashim, S. (2013). Core–shell polymers: A review. RSC Advances, 3, 15543–15565. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ra41296b.
Rychter, P., Kot, M., Bajer, K., Rogacz, D., Šišková, A., & Kapuśniak, J. (2016). Utilization of starch films plasticized with urea as fertilizer for improvement of plant growth. Carbohydrate Polymers, 137, 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2015.10.051.
Shaviv, A. (2001). Advances in controlled-release fertilizers. Advances in Agronomy, 71, 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(01)71011-5.
Souza J de, L., Chiaregato, C. G., & Faez, R. (2018). Green composite based on phb and montmorillonite for KNO3 and NPK delivery system. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 26(2), 670–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-017-0979-4.
Teh, S.-Y., Lin, R., Hung, L.-H., & Lee, A. P. (2008). Droplet microfluidics. Lab on a Chip, 8, 198–220. https://doi.org/10.1039/b715524g.
Tokárová, V., Kašpar, O., Knejzlík, Z., Ulbrich, P., & Štěpáneka, F. (2013). Development of spray-dried chitosan microcarriers for nanoparticle delivery. Powder Technology, 235, 7970–7805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.12.005.
Tomaszewska, M., & Jarosiewicz, A. (2006). Encapsulation of mineral fertilizer by polysulfone using a spraying method. Desalination, 198(1–3), 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.01.032.
Treinyte, J., Grazuleviciene, V., Paleckiene, R., Ostrauskaite, J., & Cesoniene, L. (2018). Biodegradable polymer composites as coating materials for granular fertilizers. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 26(2), 543–554. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-017-0973-x.
Trenkel, M. E. (1997). Controlled-Release and stabilized fertilizers in agriculture. Paris: IFA.
Trenkel, M. E. (2010). Slow- and controlled-release and stabilized fertilizers: An option for enhancing nutrient use efficiency in agriculture (Second ed.). Paris: IFA.
Whitesides, G. M. (2006). The origins and the future of microfluidics. Nature, 442, 368–373. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05058.
Wu, L., & Liu, M. (2008). Preparation and properties of chitosan-coated NPK compound fertilizer with controlled-release and water-retention. Carbohydrate Polymers, 72(2), 240–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2007.08.020.
Xiang, Y., Ru, X., Shi, J., Song, J., Zhao, H., Liu, Y., & Zhao, G. (2018). Granular, slow-release fertilizer from urea-formaldehyde, ammonium polyphosphate, and amorphous silica gel: A new strategy using cold extrusion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(29), 7606–7615. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b02349.
Xiao, X., Yu, L., Xie, F., Bao, X., Liu, H., Ji, H., & Chen, L. (2017). One-step method to prepare starch-based superabsorbent polymer for slow release of fertilizer. Chemical Engineering Journal, 309, 607–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2016.10.101.
Xie, L., Liu, M., Ni, B., Zhang, X., & Wang, Y. (2011). Slow-release nitrogen and boron fertilizer from a functional superabsorbent formulation based on wheat straw and attapulgite. Chemical Engineering Journal, 167, 342–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2010.12.082.
Yeo, Y., Bellas, E., Firestone, W., Langer, R., & Kohane, D. S. (2005). Complex coacervates for thermally sensitive controlled release of flavor compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(19), 7518–7525. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0507947.
Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., Omidian, H., Doroudiani, S., & Kabiri, K. (2010). Advances in non-hygienic applications of superabsorbent hydrogel materials. Journal of Materials Science, 45(21), 5711–5735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-010-4780-1.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP, Proc.2014/06566-9, 2017/24595-4 and 2017/03980-7).
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
França, D., Messa, L.L., Souza, C.F., Faez, R. (2019). Nano and Microencapsulated Nutrients for Enhanced Efficiency Fertilizer. In: Gutiérrez, T. (eds) Polymers for Agri-Food Applications . Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19416-1_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19416-1_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-19415-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-19416-1
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)