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The Animal Environment and Human Health: The Approach Followed by the Medieval Zoologist Ğāḥiẓ (Ninth Century)

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Making Sense of Health, Disease, and the Environment in Cross-Cultural History: The Arabic-Islamic World, China, Europe, and North America

Part of the book series: Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science ((BSPS,volume 333))

Abstract

Medieval medical studies allow us to address the issue of human health in its general environment and in particular in its geographical and climatic environment. The work of Ğāḥiẓ (an Arab scholar of the eighth and ninth centuries) allows us to focus notably on the relationship between human health and its animal environment. This author was in an exceptional scientific position for such analysis. In fact, he was very familiar with the physics (or natural sciences) of medieval times as well as with the body and human temperament and had a profound knowledge of the zoological science of his time. The originality of this scholar lies in the conviction that animals are worthy of specific research and must be studied for themselves. Ğāḥiẓ, with his deep knowledge of zoology, also examined the effects of animals on the physical and mental health of humans. In this chapter, we will focus in particular on his Book of Animals, the Kitāb-al-Ḥayawān, composed of 7 volumes of nearly 400 pages each. In this study, the author brings together all the zoological knowledge of his time. He reviews the data from Greek sources (notably Aristotle and Galen); he also mentions the writings of his contemporaries, particularly the Arab grammarians (such as al-Asma‘ī) who enriched zoological knowledge through personal observation and precise terminological research. Ğāḥiẓ also collected the oral testimonies of travelers. But above all, this work includes his observations, associated at times with his own experimentation. Ğāḥiẓ therefore brings to the zoological knowledge of his time some elements that are totally new, on occasion rejecting propositions made by the most legitimate authorities (such as Aristotle). In this chapter, we shall first focus on Ğāḥiẓ’s observations regarding the health of animals when in captivity. Then, we will examine two categories of animals: firstly, snakes, the mysterious animal featured in tales and beliefs, a symbol of strength, cleverness, and cunning, as well as an object of admiration and fear because of the power of their venom. Secondly, we focus on pests, today called “insects.” Ğāḥiẓ pays the same amount of attention to these two categories, examines their power and nuisance, and searches for scientific explanations as well as solutions in relation to human health.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945. This book has not undergone complete translation and editing. The full name of the author is Abū Uṯmān ‘Amr Ibn Baḥr al-Kinānī al-Baṣrī, born in Basra in Iraq in 776 and nicknamed Ğāḥiẓ which in Arabic means one who has bulging eyes.

  2. 2.

    Mutazilism is one of the schools of thought within Islam. This movement is one of the branches of Islam, which privileges reason over faith. See Gimaret 1981.

  3. 3.

    Katouzian-Safadi 2004.

  4. 4.

    See particularly Aarab et al. 2003; Aarab and Lehrminier 2015.

  5. 5.

    Aarab et al. 2003.

  6. 6.

    In this article, we use the word milieu and environment indiscriminately to talk about what encompasses animals or humans.

  7. 7.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VI, p. 25–26.

  8. 8.

    It was in Iraq that the Abbasid caliphs had chosen to set up their capitals, in Baghdad and then Samara.

  9. 9.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VII, p. 134–135.

  10. 10.

    Ibid, vol. VII, p. 134–135.

  11. 11.

    Sassanide: a pre-Islamic dynasty, who ruled in Persia between 224 and 651 AD. The Emperor Parviz (known also in literature as Khosro or Khosrow II or Chosroes in Greek) reigned from 590 to 628.

  12. 12.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VII, p. 181.

  13. 13.

    Bilād al-Rūm بلاد الروم corresponds to the definition given later to the geographical area corresponding to Byzantium.

  14. 14.

    Ibid.

  15. 15.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VII, p. 187–188.

  16. 16.

    We translate by “attachment” the term “al-Waḥšah, الوحشة ” that can equally be translated by “nostalgia.”

  17. 17.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VII, p. 186.

  18. 18.

    Ibid.

  19. 19.

    Abbassid Caliph (786–809).

  20. 20.

    Bulbul بلبل even today the word bulbul means nightingale in Arabic and Persian.

  21. 21.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. V, p. 224.

  22. 22.

    At present, and in order to avoid false ethograms, any ethological study carried out in the laboratory must be complemented by observations made in the environment in which the animal species in question lives.

  23. 23.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, Vol. I, p.118.

  24. 24.

    Ibid., vol. III, p. 147.

  25. 25.

    Ibid. Vol. III, p.212, 295–296. This passion for pigeon racing or the art of taming pigeons is part of a long tradition that is still maintained in many countries with the same enthusiasm. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeon_racing.

  26. 26.

    “And He has created (other) things of which you have no knowledge,” Coran S. XVI, V. 8.

  27. 27.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. II, p. 110–111.

  28. 28.

    In fact, the method is widely used today to catch photopositive insects (Chauvin 1967; Wiberg-Larsen 1998).

  29. 29.

    Zakarīyā Ibn Muḥammad al-Qazwīnī (1203–1283) was a judge (Cadi), under the reign of the last Abbasid caliph. (See “Kazwini”, by T. Lewicki, in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 4, p. 865–7.) He retired from public life after the installation of the Ilkhanid dynasty and devoted himself to cosmography, astronomy, astrology, and mineralogy. At the end of his life, he wrote his important work on cosmography entitled The Wonders of Creation or “Ağā’ib al-maḫlūqāt wa ġarāʽib al-mawğūdāt.” The experiment cited is related in this famous book.

  30. 30.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. I, p. 206.

  31. 31.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VI, p. 400.

  32. 32.

    Ibid, vol. VI, p. 313.

  33. 33.

    Katouzian-Safadi and Chebbi-Lamouchi 2015.

  34. 34.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. III, p. 328. Indeed, Ğāḥiẓ like Aristotle believed in “spontaneous generation” where certain forms of living organism arise from inanimate matter such as dust, putrefied soil, or air (Katouzian-Safadi and Chebbi-Lamouchi 2015, p. 169–171).

  35. 35.

    Ibid, vol. III, p. 319–320.

  36. 36.

    Ibid, vol. IV, p. 15.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p. 34–35.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p. 36.

  39. 39.

    It should be noted that Ğāḥiẓ does not explicitly mention Aristotle, but this method for helping to get rid of ants is found in Aristotle’s Historia animalium (IV, 8, 534b, 20).

  40. 40.

    Katouzian-Safadi and Chebbi-Lamouchi 2015.

  41. 41.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. V, p. 372.

  42. 42.

    Katouzian-Safadi and Chebbi-Lamouchi 2015, p. 172.

  43. 43.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. V, p. 371–372.

  44. 44.

    Ibid. vol. V, p. 371.

  45. 45.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. V, p. 371. (with good transliteration for Gahiz). Scientists and doctors were aware of the toxicity of some products. It was frequency and dilution that prevented mortal dangers. We find references to this kind of dangerous products in chapter 3 of Al-Mansūrī fī al-ṭibb of Rāzī (died in 925) concerning the simple medicines (Al-Mansūrī al-ṭibb , ed., Kuwait, 1987).

  46. 46.

    For more details, see Aarab et al. 2001.

  47. 47.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. VI, p. 29. Bedouin means nomadic Arabs.

  48. 48.

    Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm Ibn Sayyār Ibn Hāni’ al-Naẓẓam (775–846) Arab mu’tazilite poet and theologian; see table n° 1.

  49. 49.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, Vol. V. p. 21.

  50. 50.

    Great doctor at the Abbasid court and contemporary of Ğāḥiẓ. See table n° 1.

  51. 51.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, Vol. IV, p. 124.

  52. 52.

    The viper belongs to the group of solenoglyphous, whose venomous apparatus is equipped with an improved device characterized by a pair of fangs traversed by a canaliculus, completely closed, associated with the venom gland. The mechanism of the bite in the viper is currently described as follows: to bite, the viper stands and, with its mouth open, strikes a head blow to reach its prey with its fangs. The contraction of a complex set of muscles allows the mandible to be raised, the fangs to be pulled onto the pulpits, and the poisonous gland compressed: the venom is thus violently injected (Platel et al. 1991). This set of contractions results in a behavior described as a reversal of the animal.

  53. 53.

    Ibn Abī ‘Ajūz.

  54. 54.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, Vol. IV, p. 124.

  55. 55.

    Ibid. Vol. IV, p. 319.

  56. 56.

    At present, it is known that the toxicity of a given species is based on three parameters (Grassé 1976; Platel et al. 1991): the efficacy of the mechanical venom injection device, the toxicity of the substance injected, and the dose. Indeed, a minimal dose of venom is needed to kill an animal.

  57. 57.

    At present, it is confirmed that the nature of the sting or fang does not play a major role on the venomous effect (Stockmann 1990). However this organ plays the role of an indispensable device allowing the passage of the venom to the body of the prey. The role given by Ğāḥiẓ to the sting or fang could be explained by the fact that generally there is a residue of venom in the organ and that even if it has dried up, the venom retains its toxic property.

  58. 58.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, Vol. IV. p. 126.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p, 318.

  60. 60.

    Ibid. vol. IV, p, 318.

  61. 61.

    Ibid. vol. IV, p. 313–314.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p., 319.

  63. 63.

    According to the classic concept, during the Sassanid era, the region of Šahrazor corresponded to the modern provinces of Kirkuk and parts of the Diyala province; see http://dictionary.sensagent.com/shahrazor/en-en/

  64. 64.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. V, p., 363.

  65. 65.

    ʿAskar Mokram is a town of the medieval Islamic province of Ahvāz (Khūzistān) and also the name of the district of which it was the administrative center; see http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/askar-mokram-lit

  66. 66.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, p., 363.

  67. 67.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p., 221–222.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., vol. V, p., 363.

  69. 69.

    Ibid.

  70. 70.

    Ibid.

  71. 71.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p., 222.

  72. 72.

    Ibid.

  73. 73.

    Ibid., vol. IV, p., 121–222.

  74. 74.

    While repulsion against snakes is an acquired trait, some fears can induce deadly cardiac stimulation.

  75. 75.

    Ğāḥiẓ 1945, vol. IV, p. 123.

  76. 76.

    Ibid.

  77. 77.

    Ğāḥiẓ remarks that a woman who drinks wine while breastfeeding intoxicates the baby; similarly, taking a purgative in a lactating woman can cause diarrhea in the baby (Ibid., Vol. V, p. 366–367).

  78. 78.

    Although it is now known that wine and purgative medicines can have an effect on breast milk, we do not have data on the effect of the sting or bite on the mother.

  79. 79.

    Ğāḥiẓ, 1945, Vol. IV. p. 219–220. The verb “hağama” in Arabic, means “to suck” or “to carry out cupping.” For cupping (hağama) as treatment, see http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/26488/InTech-Chapter_download.pdf. For contemporary cupping, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijama

  80. 80.

    Katouzian-Safadi 2013.

  81. 81.

    Ben Saad and Katouzian-Safadi 2013.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, University Abdelmalek Essadi, Tanger, Marocco

    Ahmed Aarab

  2. UMR 7219 – SPHERE, CNRS/Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France

    Ahmed Aarab

  3. Université de Paris, SPHERE, UMR 7219, CNRS-Université de Paris, Paris, France

    Kaouthar Lamouchi-Chebbi & Mehrnaz Katouzian-Safadi

  4. Manouba University, Tunis, Tunisia

    Kaouthar Lamouchi-Chebbi

Authors
  1. Ahmed Aarab
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  2. Kaouthar Lamouchi-Chebbi
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  3. Mehrnaz Katouzian-Safadi
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Correspondence to Mehrnaz Katouzian-Safadi .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Université de Paris, SPHERE, UMR 7219, CNRS-Université de Paris, Paris, France

    Florence Bretelle-Establet

  2. Université de Paris, SPHERE, UMR 7219, CNRS-Université de Paris, Paris, France

    Marie Gaille

  3. Université de Paris, SPHERE, UMR 7219, CNRS-Université de Paris, Paris, France

    Mehrnaz Katouzian-Safadi

Transliteration Adopted for Arabic in This Article

Transliteration Adopted for Arabic in This Article

Usual characters in the Arabic alphabet

Arabic international transliteration

أ

’

ا

ā

ة

a

ث

ṯ

ج

ğ

ح

ḥ

خ

ḫ

ذ

ḏ

ش

š

ص

ṣ

ض

ḍ

ط

ṭ

ظ

ẓ

ع

‘

غ

ġ

ق

q

و

ū/w

ي

ī

1.1 Short Glossary

ṭabāiʽ, طبائع: :

nature

waḥšī, وحشي: :

wild

ahlī, أهلي::

domestic

Waḥšah, وحشة: :

attachment

kamm, كم: :

quantity

kayf, كيف: :

procedure

ğins, جنس: :

nature (of the venom)

muqābilat (المقابلات): :

correspondences (sing. muqabila)

ġarāyiz (الغرائز): :

intrinsic natures (sing. ġariza)

ḫaṣiyyat (الخاصيات ): :

properties (sing. ḫasīyya)

ḥağğām (حجام): :

sucker using incision

ğarrārah (جرارة): :

kind of scorpion

1.2 Geographical Zones

  • Iraq

  • Byzantium

  • The region of Šahrazor

  • The region of ‘Askar Mokram

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Aarab, A., Lamouchi-Chebbi, K., Katouzian-Safadi, M. (2019). The Animal Environment and Human Health: The Approach Followed by the Medieval Zoologist Ğāḥiẓ (Ninth Century). In: Bretelle-Establet, F., Gaille, M., Katouzian-Safadi, M. (eds) Making Sense of Health, Disease, and the Environment in Cross-Cultural History: The Arabic-Islamic World, China, Europe, and North America. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science, vol 333. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19082-8_3

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