Abstract
Severe burns represent around 436,000 ambulatory care visits to hospital emergency departments in the United States [1]. A significant portion of these burns are minor; nevertheless between 40,000 and 60,000 burn patients undergo admission to a hospital [2]. Of all cases, nearly 4000 people die of complications related to the burn [3]. During the 1940s and 1950s, the burn size lethal to 50% of the population was 42% of total body surface area (TBSA). More recently, this number has increased to more than 90% TBSA in selected groups of patients. The devastating consequences of burns have been recognized by the medical community, and significant amounts of resources and research have been dedicated to improve our understanding and enhancing the way we manage patients, successfully improving these dismal statistics [3–5]. This significant improvement is secondary to the establishment of specialized burn centers, refinements in resuscitation strategies, advances in critical care, sepsis management and infection control, early excision of burn wounds, enhanced wound coverage, better support on the metabolic response to burns, and improved treatment of inhalation injury [5, 6].
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2013 Emergency Department Summary tables. In The Ambulatory and Hospital Care Statistics Branch, Editor. National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2013.
McDermott KW, Weiss AJ, Elixhauser A. Burn-related hospital inpatient stays and Emergency Department visits, 2013: statistical brief #217, in Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP) statistical briefs. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2006.
Herndon DN, editor. Total burn care. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Elsevier; 2007.
Herndon DN, Tompkins RG. Support of the metabolic response to burn injury. Lancet. 2004;363(9424):1895–902.
Jeschke MG, et al. Handbook of burns, vol. 1. Wien: Springer; 2012.
Kraft R, et al. Burn size and survival probability in paediatric patients in modern burn care: a prospective observational cohort study. Lancet. 2012;379(9820):1013–21.
Jeschke MG, et al. Morbidity and survival probability in burn patients in modern burn care. Crit Care Med. 2015;43(4):808–15.
Jeschke MG, et al. Pathophysiologic response to severe burn injury. Ann Surg. 2008;248(3):387–401.
Shirani KZ, Pruitt BA Jr, Mason AD Jr. The influence of inhalation injury and pneumonia on burn mortality. Ann Surg. 1987;205(1):82–7.
Chen MC, et al. The impact of inhalation injury in patients with small and moderate burns. Burns. 2014;40(8):1481–6.
Enkhbaatar P, et al. Pathophysiology, research challenges, and clinical management of smoke inhalation injury. Lancet. 2016;388(10052):1437–46.
ABA. 2011 National burn repository: report of data from 2001-2010. American Burn Association; 2011.
Maan ZN, et al. Burns ITU admissions: length of stay in specific levels of care for adult and paediatric patients. Burns. 2014;40(8):1458–62.
Williams FN, et al. The leading causes of death after burn injury in a single pediatric burn center. Crit Care. 2009;13(6):R183.
Barrow RE, Jeschke MG, Herndon DN. Early fluid resuscitation improves outcomes in severely burned children. Resuscitation. 2000;45(2):91–6.
Greenhalgh DG. Burn resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(4):555–65.
Greenhalgh DG. Burn resuscitation: the results of the ISBI/ABA survey. Burns. 2010;36(2):176–82.
Kraft R, et al. Optimized fluid management improves outcomes of pediatric burn patients. J Surg Res. 2013;181(1):121–8.
Wolf SE, et al. Mortality determinants in massive pediatric burns. An analysis of 103 children with > or = 80% TBSA burns (> or = 70% full-thickness). Ann Surg. 1997;225(5):554–65; discussion 565−9
Wiggins-Dohlvik K, et al. Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 inhibits burn-induced derangements and hyperpermeability in microvascular endothelial cells. Am J Surg. 2016;211(1):197–205.
Lund T, Onarheim H, Reed RK. Pathogenesis of edema formation in burn injuries. World J Surg. 1992;16(1):2–9.
Arturson G, Jakobsson OP. Oedema measurements in a standard burn model. Burns Incl Therm Inj. 1985;12(1):1–7.
Kremer T, et al. Burn plasma transfer induces burn edema in healthy rats. Shock. 2008;30(4):394–400.
Rae L, Fidler P, Gibran N. The physiologic basis of burn shock and the need for aggressive fluid resuscitation. Crit Care Clin. 2016;32(4):491–505.
Horton JW, et al. Postburn cardiac contractile function and biochemical markers of postburn cardiac injury. J Am Coll Surg. 1995;181(4):289–98.
Klein MB, et al. The association between fluid administration and outcome following major burn: a multicenter study. Ann Surg. 2007;245(4):622–8.
Pham TN, Cancio LC, Gibran NS. American Burn Association practice guidelines burn shock resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2008;29(1):257–66.
Salinas J, et al. Computerized decision support system improves fluid resuscitation following severe burns: an original study. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(9):2031–8.
Cancio LC, Salinas J, Kramer GC. Protocolized resuscitation of burn patients. Crit Care Clin. 2016;32(4):599–610.
Ivy ME, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome in burn patients. J Trauma. 2000;49(3):387–91.
Bittner EA, et al. Acute and perioperative care of the burn-injured patient. Anesthesiology. 2015;122(2):448–64.
Greenhalgh DG, et al. American Burn Association consensus conference to define sepsis and infection in burns. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(6):776–90.
Latenser BA. Critical care of the burn patient: the first 48 hours. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(10):2819–26.
Baxter CR, Shires T. Physiological response to crystalloid resuscitation of severe burns. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1968;150(3):874–94.
Rivers E, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1368–77.
Hodgman EI, et al. Future therapies in burn resuscitation. Crit Care Clin. 2016;32(4):611–9.
Saffle JI. The phenomenon of “fluid creep” in acute burn resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(3):382–95.
Faraklas I, et al. Colloid normalizes resuscitation ratio in pediatric burns. J Burn Care Res. 2011;32(1):91–7.
Cochran A, et al. Burn patient characteristics and outcomes following resuscitation with albumin. Burns. 2007;33(1):25–30.
Navickis RJ, Greenhalgh DG, Wilkes MM. Albumin in burn shock resuscitation: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical studies. J Burn Care Res. 2016;37(3):e268–78.
O’Mara MS, et al. A prospective, randomized evaluation of intra-abdominal pressures with crystalloid and colloid resuscitation in burn patients. J Trauma. 2005;58(5):1011–8.
Huzar TF, et al. Admission Rapid Thrombelastography (rTEG(R)) values predict resuscitation volumes and patient outcomes after thermal injury. J Burn Care Res. 2018;39(3):345.
Perel P, Roberts I, Ker K. Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;(2):CD000567.
Bunn F, Trivedi D. Colloid solutions for fluid resuscitation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;(7):CD001319.
Cartotto R, Callum J. A review of the use of human albumin in burn patients. J Burn Care Res. 2012;33(6):702–17.
Snell JA, et al. Clinical review: the critical care management of the burn patient. Crit Care. 2013;17(5):241.
Palmieri TL, et al. Transfusion Requirement in Burn Care Evaluation (TRIBE): a multicenter randomized prospective trial of blood transfusion in major burn injury. Ann Surg. 2017;266(4):595–602.
Evans AE, et al. Cardiovascular responsiveness to vasopressin and alpha1-adrenergic receptor agonists after burn injury. J Burn Care Res. 2017;38(2):90–8.
Andel D, et al. Base deficit and lactate: early predictors of morbidity and mortality in patients with burns. Burns. 2007;33(8):973–8.
Jeng JC, et al. Serum lactate, not base deficit, rapidly predicts survival after major burns. Burns. 2002;28(2):161–6.
Husain FA, et al. Serum lactate and base deficit as predictors of mortality and morbidity. Am J Surg. 2003;185(5):485–91.
Guillory AN, et al. Cardiovascular dysfunction following burn injury: what we have learned from rat and mouse models. Int J Mol Sci. 2016;17(1):E53.
Branski LK, et al. Transpulmonary thermodilution for hemodynamic measurements in severely burned children. Crit Care. 2011;15(2):R118.
Kuntscher MV, et al. Transcardiopulmonary vs pulmonary arterial thermodilution methods for hemodynamic monitoring of burned patients. J Burn Care Rehabil. 2002;23(1):21–6.
Etherington L, Saffle J, Cochran A. Use of transesophageal echocardiography in burns:a retrospective review. J Burn Care Res. 2010;31(1):36–9.
Paratz JD, et al. Burn resuscitation--hourly urine output versus alternative endpoints: a systematic review. Shock. 2014;42(4):295–306.
Kuntscher MV, Germann G, Hartmann B. Correlations between cardiac output, stroke volume, central venous pressure, intra-abdominal pressure and total circulating blood volume in resuscitation of major burns. Resuscitation. 2006;70(1):37–43.
Ivy ME, et al. Abdominal compartment syndrome in patients with burns. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1999;20(5):351–3.
Hershberger RC, et al. Abdominal compartment syndrome in the severely burned patient. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(5):708–14.
Balogh ZJ, et al. Postinjury abdominal compartment syndrome: from recognition to prevention. Lancet. 2014;384(9952):1466–75.
Milner SM, et al. Cody. Eplasty. 2015;15:e35.
Birman C, Beckenham E. Acquired tracheo-esophageal fistula in the pediatric population. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1998;44(2):109–13.
Chung KK, et al. High-frequency percussive ventilation and low tidal volume ventilation in burns: a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2010;38(10):1970–7.
Kennedy JD, et al. ECMO in major burn patients: feasibility and considerations when multiple modes of mechanical ventilation fail. Burns Trauma. 2017;5:20.
Smailes ST, Martin RV, McVicar AJ. The incidence and outcome of extubation failure in burn intensive care patients. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(3):386–92.
Palmieri TL, et al. Inhalation injury in children: a 10 year experience at Shriners Hospitals for Children. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(1):206–8.
Nayyar A, Charles AG, Hultman CS. Management of pulmonary failure after burn injury: from VDR to ECMO. Clin Plast Surg. 2017;44(3):513–20.
Sutton T, et al. Severity of inhalation injury is predictive of alterations in gas exchange and worsened clinical outcomes. J Burn Care Res. 2017;38:390–5.
Sheridan RL, Hess D. Inhaled nitric oxide in inhalation injury. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(1):162–4.
Endorf FW, Gamelli RL. Inhalation injury, pulmonary perturbations, and fluid resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(1):80–3.
Kealey GP. Carbon monoxide toxicity. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(1):146–7.
Erdman AR. Is hydroxocobalamin safe and effective for smoke inhalation? Searching for guidance in the haze. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49(6):814–6.
Nguyen L, et al. Utility and outcomes of hydroxocobalamin use in smoke inhalation patients. Burns. 2017;43(1):107–13.
Finnerty CC, Herndon DN, Jeschke MG. Inhalation injury in severely burned children does not augment the systemic inflammatory response. Crit Care. 2007;11(1):R22.
Bai C, et al. Application of flexible bronchoscopy in inhalation lung injury. Diagn Pathol. 2013;8:174.
Weaver LK. Clinical practice. Carbon monoxide poisoning. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(12):1217–25.
Holm C, et al. Effect of crystalloid resuscitation and inhalation injury on extravascular lung water. Chest. 2002;121(6):1956–62.
Barrow RE, et al. Mortality related to gender, age, sepsis, and ethnicity in severely burned children. Shock. 2005;23(6):485–7.
Miller AC, Elamin EM, Suffredini AF. Inhaled anticoagulation regimens for the treatment of smoke inhalation-associated acute lung injury: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2014;42(2):413–9.
Glas GJ, et al. HEPBURN - investigating the efficacy and safety of nebulized heparin versus placebo in burn patients with inhalation trauma: study protocol for a multi-center randomized controlled trial. Trials. 2014;15:91.
Enkhbaatar P, et al. Inducible nitric oxide synthase dimerization inhibitor prevents cardiovascular and renal morbidity in sheep with combined burn and smoke inhalation injury. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2003;285(6):H2430–6.
Foncerrada G, et al. Safety of nebulized epinephrine in smoke inhalation injury. J Burn Care Res. 2017;38(6):396–402.
Tabrizi MB, et al. Inhaled epoprostenol improves oxygenation in severe hypoxemia. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2012;73(2):503–6.
Carlson DL, Horton JW. Cardiac molecular signaling after burn trauma. J Burn Care Res. 2006;27(5):669–75.
Marano MA, et al. Serum cachectin/tumor necrosis factor in critically ill patients with burns correlates with infection and mortality. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1990;170(1):32–8.
Kim HS, et al. Changes in the levels of interleukins 6, 8, and 10, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and granulocyte-colony stimulating factor in Korean burn patients: relation to burn size and postburn time. Ann Lab Med. 2012;32(5):339–44.
Jeschke MG, et al. Long-term persistance of the pathophysiologic response to severe burn injury. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e21245.
Hung TY, et al. Increased risk of ischemic stroke in patients with burn injury: a nationwide cohort study in Taiwan. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2016;24:44.
Cubitt JJ, et al. Intensive care unit-acquired weakness in the burn population. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2016;69(5):e105–9.
de Jonge E, Bos MM. Patients with cancer on the ICU: the times they are changing. Crit Care. 2009;13(2):122.
Gore DC, et al. Influence of fever on the hypermetabolic response in burn-injured children. Arch Surg. 2003;138(2):169–74; discussion 174.
Hogan BK, et al. Correlation of American Burn Association sepsis criteria with the presence of bacteremia in burned patients admitted to the intensive care unit. J Burn Care Res. 2012;33(3):371–8.
Murray CK, et al. Evaluation of white blood cell count, neutrophil percentage, and elevated temperature as predictors of bloodstream infection in burn patients. Arch Surg. 2007;142(7):639–42.
Davis SL, et al. Sustained impairments in cutaneous vasodilation and sweating in grafted skin following long-term recovery. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(4):675–85.
Bernal E, Wolf S, Cripps M. New-onset, postoperative tachyarrhythmias in critically ill surgical patients. Burns. 2018;44(2):249–55.
Goff DR, et al. Cardiac disease and the patient with burns. J Burn Care Rehabil. 1990;11(4):305–7.
Bouadma L, Wolff M, Lucet JC. Ventilator-associated pneumonia and its prevention. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012;25(4):395–404.
Sen S, et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia prevention bundle significantly reduces the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia in critically ill burn patients. J Burn Care Res. 2016;37(3):166–71.
Bassetti M, et al. Management of ventilator-associated pneumonia: epidemiology, diagnosis and antimicrobial therapy. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2012;10(5):585–96.
Mosier MJ, et al. Early enteral nutrition in burns: compliance with guidelines and associated outcomes in a multicenter study. J Burn Care Res. 2011;32(1):104–9.
Lam NN, Tien NG, Khoa CM. Early enteral feeding for burned patients--an effective method which should be encouraged in developing countries. Burns. 2008;34(2):192–6.
Raff T, Hartmann B, Germann G. Early intragastric feeding of seriously burned and long-term ventilated patients: a review of 55 patients. Burns. 1997;23(1):19–25.
Markell KW, et al. Abdominal complications after severe burns. J Am Coll Surg. 2009;208(5):940–7; discussion 947−9
Williams FN, et al. Modulation of the hypermetabolic response to trauma: temperature, nutrition, and drugs. J Am Coll Surg. 2009;208(4):489–502.
Pereira C, Murphy K, Herndon D. Outcome measures in burn care. Is mortality dead? Burns. 2004;30(8):761–71.
Pereira CT, et al. Age-dependent differences in survival after severe burns: a unicentric review of 1,674 patients and 179 autopsies over 15 years. J Am Coll Surg. 2006;202(3):536–48.
Jeschke MG. The hepatic response to thermal injury: is the liver important for postburn outcomes? Mol Med. 2009;15(9-10):337–51.
Price LA, et al. Liver disease in burn injury: evidence from a national sample of 31,338 adult patients. J Burns Wounds. 2007;7:e1.
Jeschke MG, et al. Insulin protects against hepatic damage postburn. Mol Med. 2011;17(5-6):516–22.
Gauglitz GG, et al. Post-burn hepatic insulin resistance is associated with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Shock. 2010;33(3):299–305.
Song J, et al. Severe burn-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress and hepatic damage in mice. Mol Med. 2009;15(9−10):316–20.
Jeschke MG, et al. Calcium and Er stress mediate hepatic apoptosis after burn injury. J Cell Mol Med. 2009;13:1857–65.
Jeschke MG, Micak RP, Finnerty CC, Herndon DN. Changes in liver function and size after a severe thermal injury. Shock. 2007;28:172–7.
Jeschke MG, et al. Changes in liver function and size after a severe thermal injury. Shock. 2007;28(2):172–7.
Bohanon FJ, et al. Burn trauma acutely increases the respiratory capacity and function of liver mitochondria. Shock. 2018;49(4):466–73.
Senel E, et al. The evaluation of the adrenal and thyroid axes and glucose metabolism after burn injury in children. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2010;23(5):481–9.
Gore DC, et al. Association of hyperglycemia with increased mortality after severe burn injury. J Trauma. 2001;51(3):540–4.
Pham TN, et al. Impact of tight glycemic control in severely burned children. J Trauma. 2005;59(5):1148–54.
Jeschke MG. Clinical review: glucose control in severely burned patients - current best practice. Crit Care. 2013;17(4):232.
Baxter CR. Metabolism and nutrition in burned patients. Compr Ther. 1987;13(1):36–42.
Medlin S. Nutrition for wound healing. Br J Nurs. 2012;21(12):S11–2, S14−5
Berger M. Acute copper and zinc deficiency due to exudative losses - substitution versus nutritional requirements - [Burns 2005;31(6): 711-6]. Burns. 2006;32(3):393.
Kremer T, et al. High-dose vitamin C treatment reduces capillary leakage after burn plasma transfer in rats. J Burn Care Res. 2010;31(3):470–9.
Tanaka H, et al. Reduction of resuscitation fluid volumes in severely burned patients using ascorbic acid administration: a randomized, prospective study. Arch Surg. 2000;135(3):326–31.
Buehner M, et al. Oxalate nephropathy after continuous infusion of high-dose vitamin C as an adjunct to burn resuscitation. J Burn Care Res. 2016;37(4):e374–9.
Chrysopoulo MT, et al. Acute renal dysfunction in severely burned adults. J Trauma. 1999;46(1):141–4.
Jeschke MG, et al. Mortality in burned children with acute renal failure. Arch Surg. 1998;133(7):752–6.
Kallinen O, et al. Multiple organ failure as a cause of death in patients with severe burns. J Burn Care Res. 2012;33(2):206–11.
Clark A, et al. Acute kidney injury after burn. Burns. 2017;43(5):898–908.
Holm C, et al. Acute renal failure in severely burned patients. Burns. 1999;25(2):171–8.
Mosier MJ, Lasinski AM, Gamelli RL. Suspected adrenal insufficiency in critically ill burned patients: etomidate-induced or critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency?-A review of the literature. J Burn Care Res. 2015;36(2):272–8.
Fuchs P, et al. Cortisol in severely burned patients: investigations on disturbance of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Shock. 2007;28(6):662–7.
Gangemi EN, et al. Low triiodothyronine serum levels as a predictor of poor prognosis in burn patients. Burns. 2008;34(6):817–24.
Herndon DN, et al. Reversal of catabolism by beta-blockade after severe burns. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(17):1223–9.
Morio B, et al. Propranolol decreases splanchnic triacylglycerol storage in burn patients receiving a high-carbohydrate diet. Ann Surg. 2002;236(2):218–25.
Breitenstein E, et al. Effects of beta-blockade on energy metabolism following burns. Burns. 1990;16(4):259–64.
Jeschke MG, et al. The effect of oxandrolone on the endocrinologic, inflammatory, and hypermetabolic responses during the acute phase postburn. Ann Surg. 2007;246(3):351–60; discussion 360−2
Li H, et al. The efficacy and safety of oxandrolone treatment for patients with severe burns: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Burns. 2016;42(4):717–27.
Klein GL. Burn-induced bone loss: importance, mechanisms, and management. J Burns Wounds. 2006;5:e5.
Jeschke MG, et al. Combination of recombinant human growth hormone and propranolol decreases hypermetabolism and inflammation in severely burned children. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2008;9(2):209–16.
Takala J, et al. Increased mortality associated with growth hormone treatment in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(11):785–92.
Diaz EC, et al. Effects of pharmacological interventions on muscle protein synthesis and breakdown in recovery from burns. Burns. 2015;41(4):649–57.
Pierre EJ, et al. Effects of insulin on wound healing. J Trauma. 1998;44(2):342–5.
Tappy L, et al. Effects of isoenergetic glucose-based or lipid-based parenteral nutrition on glucose metabolism, de novo lipogenesis, and respiratory gas exchanges in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(5):860–7.
Burke JF, et al. Glucose requirements following burn injury. Parameters of optimal glucose infusion and possible hepatic and respiratory abnormalities following excessive glucose intake. Ann Surg. 1979;190(3):274–85.
Gore DC, et al. Influence of metformin on glucose intolerance and muscle catabolism following severe burn injury. Ann Surg. 2005;241(2):334–42.
Murphey ED, et al. Up-regulation of the parathyroid calcium-sensing receptor after burn injury in sheep: a potential contributory factor to postburn hypocalcemia. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(12):3885–90.
Sam R, et al. Hypercalcemia in patients in the burn intensive care unit. J Burn Care Res. 2007;28(5):742–6.
Przkora R, et al. Body composition changes with time in pediatric burn patients. J Trauma. 2006;60(5):968–71; discussion 971
Przkora R, Herndon DN, Suman OE. The effects of oxandrolone and exercise on muscle mass and function in children with severe burns. Pediatrics. 2007;119(1):e109–16.
Peterson SL, et al. Postburn heterotopic ossification: insights for management decision making. J Trauma. 1989;29(3):365–9.
Vanden Bossche L, Vanderstraeten G. Heterotopic ossification: a review. J Rehabil Med. 2005;37(3):129–36.
Jeschke MG, et al. Endogenous anabolic hormones and hypermetabolism: effect of trauma and gender differences. Ann Surg. 2005;241(5):759–67; discussion 767−8
Jeschke MG, et al. Gender differences in pediatric burn patients: does it make a difference? Ann Surg. 2008;248(1):126–36.
Przkora R, et al. Beneficial effects of extended growth hormone treatment after hospital discharge in pediatric burn patients. Ann Surg. 2006;243(6):796–801; discussion 801−3
Rousseau AF, et al. Bone markers during acute burn care: relevance to clinical practice? Burns. 2017;43(1):176–81.
Roshanzamir S, Partovi A, Dabbaghmanesh A. Prevalence and severity of bone loss in burned patients. Burns. 2017;43(4):766–70.
Klein GL, et al. The efficacy of acute administration of pamidronate on the conservation of bone mass following severe burn injury in children: a double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Osteoporos Int. 2005;16(6):631–5.
Przkora R, et al. Pamidronate preserves bone mass for at least 2 years following acute administration for pediatric burn injury. Bone. 2007;41(2):297–302.
Mayes T, et al. Investigation of bone health subsequent to vitamin D supplementation in children following burn injury. Nutr Clin Pract. 2015;30(6):830–7.
Rousseau AF, et al. Effects of cholecalciferol supplementation and optimized calcium intakes on vitamin D status, muscle strength and bone health: a one-year pilot randomized controlled trial in adults with severe burns. Burns. 2015;41(2):317–25.
Amrein K, et al. Effect of high-dose vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay in critically ill patients with vitamin D deficiency: the VITdAL-ICU randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312(15):1520–30.
Midura EF, et al. Impact of platelets and platelet-derived microparticles on hypercoagulability following burn injury. Shock. 2016;45(1):82–7.
Lippi G, Ippolito L, Cervellin G. Disseminated intravascular coagulation in burn injury. Semin Thromb Hemost. 2010;36(4):429–36.
King DR, Namias N, Andrews DM. Coagulation abnormalities following thermal injury. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2010;21(7):666–9.
Garcia-Avello A, et al. Degree of hypercoagulability and hyperfibrinolysis is related to organ failure and prognosis after burn trauma. Thromb Res. 1998;89(2):59–64.
Geerts WH, et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest. 2008;133(6 Suppl):381S–453S.
Palmieri TL, Greenhalgh DG, Sen S. Prospective comparison of packed red blood cell-to-fresh frozen plasma transfusion ratio of 4: 1 versus 1: 1 during acute massive burn excision. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2013;74(1):76–83.
Sherren PB, et al. Acute burn induced coagulopathy. Burns. 2013;39(6):1157–61.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Taveras, L.R., Jeschke, M.G., Wolf, S.E. (2020). Critical Care in Burns. In: Jeschke, M., Kamolz, LP., Sjöberg, F., Wolf, S. (eds) Handbook of Burns Volume 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18940-2_20
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18940-2_20
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-18939-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-18940-2
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)