Abstract
Over several decades, New Zealand has built a strong, bipartisan record for constructive disarmament and arms control policies. This contributes significantly to its reputation as a relatively independent, principled international actor. It reflects and reinforces New Zealand’s role as a champion of a rules-based international order, and defender of the rights and interests of small states.
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- 1.
New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act 1987, sections 5–7, 9–11 and 14(2).
- 2.
New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone Act, preambular para. 1.
- 3.
New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone Act, section 18(1)(a). In 2011, the Key Government disestablished the post but in 2018, the Ardern Government reinstated it.
- 4.
“Banning Weapons,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, accessed 31 May 2019, https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/peace-rights-and-security/disarmament/chemical/banning-weapons/#CCCW.
- 5.
“Banning Weapons.”
- 6.
Borrie (2009), p. 44, 46, 133, 150, 193, 220, 285.
- 7.
“Model Legislation,” Implementation Support Unit of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, accessed 31 May 2019, http://www.clusterconvention.org/documents-and-resources/model-legislation/.
- 8.
Global Partnership Working Group, “GPWG Annual Report 2010: Consolidated Report Data; Annex A,” (2010), 53–55, https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/184526.pdf.
- 9.
Until 2004, nuclear propulsion policies were less consistent. Since adopting a ‘nuclear free’ policy before the 1990 election, the National Party has twice sought to remove the propulsion ban to improve relations with the United States. After two pro-nuclear reports in 1992 and 2004 engendered strong public criticism, it did not pursue the issue.
- 10.
- 11.
Kane (2014), pp. 2 and v, respectively.
- 12.
The NPT also affirms that state parties have an “inalienable right” to the peaceful uses of nuclear technology.
- 13.
2000 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Final Document, vol. I, NPT/CONF.2000/28 (New York: United Nations, 2000), 14, para. 15(6); 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Final Document, vol. I, NPT/CONF.2010/50 (New York: United Nations, 2010), 12, para. 79; 19: chapeau to Section I; 19, para. I(A)(ii); 20, Action 1; 20, Action 3.
- 14.
New Zealand also supports the CTBT Organisation by hosting radionuclide, infrasound and seismic monitoring stations as part of the International Monitoring System which can detect nuclear tests anywhere.
- 15.
Russia and the United States each maintain nearly 1000 nuclear missiles on 30-min alert status. In 2009, New Zealand and Switzerland co-funded a seminar with US and Russian nuclear experts to explore options for de-alerting these weapons. See Reframing Nuclear De-Alert: Decreasing the Operational Readiness of U.S. and Russian Arsenals. (Yverdon-les-Bains: EastWest Institute, 2009).
- 16.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “US and New Zealand Expand Partnership to Reduce Global Nuclear Threats,” press release, 31 July 2012.
- 17.
1995 Review and Extension Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, Final Document, NPT/CONF.1995/32 (Part I) (New York: United Nations, 1995), 10, para. 4(a).
- 18.
Hoadley (2005), ch. 8.
- 19.
- 20.
Hoadley (2005), p. 112.
- 21.
Dewes (1998).
- 22.
International Court of Justice, “Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion,” ICJ Reports 1996 (8 July 1996), 266–267, para. 105(2)(E) and (F), https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/95/095-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf.
- 23.
New Zealand and San Marino were the only Western-aligned countries to support the resolution.
- 24.
Cited in Prior et al. (1998), p. 37.
- 25.
Dell Higgie, “Speech to the Symposium Marking the 20th Anniversary of the 8 July 1996 Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice” (Christchurch, 8 July 2016), accessed 31 May 2019, http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/dh-icjsy16.pdf.
- 26.
Goff (2000), p. 7.
- 27.
The NAC also drew inspiration from the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons. Randal (2008), p. 185.
- 28.
Burford (2016), pp. 181–186.
- 29.
2000 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty, 14, para. 15(6).
- 30.
Rebecca Johnson, “The 2000 NPT Review Conference: A Delicate, Hard-Won Compromise,” Disarmament Diplomacy 46 (May 2000), https://web.archive.org/web/20120328141214/http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/dd46/46npt.htm.
- 31.
2010 Review Conference, 19, para. I(A)(ii).
- 32.
2010 Review Conference, 19, para. I(A)(v).
- 33.
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, “Working towards the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons,” (Geneva, 26 November 2011), https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/report/nuclear-background-document-2011-11-26.htm; International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, Working towards the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons: 2018–2021 Action Plan, CD/17/R4 (11 November 2017), http://rcrcconference.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/CD-17-R4_clean.pdf.
- 34.
Ritchie (2015).
- 35.
New Zealand testimony to the ICJ, Public sitting, 9 November 1995, 24, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/95/8710.pdf.
- 36.
Switzerland, “Joint Statement on the Humanitarian Dimension of Nuclear Disarmament,” presented to the NPT Preparatory Committee, Vienna, 2 May 2012.
- 37.
New Zealand, “Joint Statement on the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons,” presented to the UNGA First Committee, New York, 21 October 2013; and “Joint Statement on the Humanitarian Consequences of Nuclear Weapons,” presented to the UNGA First Committee. New York, 20 October 2014.
- 38.
“Humanitarian Initiative,” ICAN, accessed 31 May 2019, http://www.icanw.org/campaign/humanitarian-initiative/.
- 39.
Lewis A Dunn, “Some Reflections on Strategic Stability and Its Challenges in Today’s World” (conference paper, Meeting on Strategic Stability Issues, sponsored by the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies, Moscow, 5 October 2017), p. 9, http://www.nonproliferation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/us-russian-dialogue-on-strategic-stability__strategic-stability-lewis-dunn.pdf.
- 40.
See for example, Treasa Dunworth, “Strengthening the NPT: International Law and Effective Measures for Nuclear Disarmament” (Discussion Paper, Faculty of Law, University of Auckland, October 2015), http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/NZ-161015.pdf; Treasa Dunworth, “Negotiating Nuclear Disarmament: Clarifying the Law,” (paper presented to the First Committee of the UNGA, New York, October 2016), http://www.converge.org.nz/pma/NZ-161015.pdf.
- 41.
Chile, Malaysia, Nigeria, New Zealand, Sweden, and Switzerland, “De-Alerting,” A/AC.286/WP.18, presented to the Open Ended Working Group on Taking Forward Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament Negotiations, Geneva, 2016.
- 42.
United Nations General Assembly, resolution 71/258, Taking Forward Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament Negotiations, A/RES/71/258, 23 December 2016.
- 43.
Norwegian Nobel Committee, “The Nobel Peace Prize for 2017,” press release, 6 October 2017, https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2017/press.html.
- 44.
“Signature/Ratification Status of the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,” ICAN, accessed 31 May 2019, http://www.icanw.org/status-of-the-treaty-on-the-prohibition-of-nuclear-weapons/.
- 45.
Winston Peters, “New Zealand to Join New Nuclear Disarmament Treaty,” Government press release, 14 May 2018, https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/new-zealand-join-new-nuclear-disarmament-treaty.
- 46.
National Interest Analysis – Nuclear Weapon Prohibition Treaty, shoulder no. A.15A (Wellington: New Zealand Parliament, May 2018), para 13, https://www.parliament.nz/en/pb/papers-presented/current-papers/document/PAP_78208/treaty-on-the-prohibition-nuclear-weapons-along-with-the.
- 47.
- 48.
National Interest Analysis – Nuclear Weapon Prohibition Treaty, para. 3.
- 49.
For detailed analysis and debate of the implications of this point, see, Sagan (2010).
- 50.
Approaches for Managing the Costs of U.S. Nuclear Forces, 2017 to 2046 (Washington DC: Congressional Budget Office, 2017), 15, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/53211.
- 51.
For the complete UNGA voting record, see, United Nations General Assembly, official record, 68th Plenary Meeting of the First Committee, A/71/PV.68, 23 December 2016, 17.
- 52.
Wang Qun, “Statement by Ambassador WANG Qun” (First Committee of the 71st session of the UNGA, New York, 10 October 2016), 3, https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/zyjh_665391/t1405391.shtml.
- 53.
Somini Sengupta and Rick Gladstone, “United States and Allies Protest U.N. Talks to Ban Nuclear Weapons.” New York Times, 27 March 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/27/world/americas/un-nuclear-weapons-talks.html.
- 54.
“Joint Press Statement from the Permanent Representatives to the United Nations of the United States, United Kingdom, and France Following the Adoption of a Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons,” 7 July 2017, https://web.archive.org/web/20170921004548/https://usun.state.gov/remarks/7892.
- 55.
NATO, “North Atlantic Council Statement on the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons,” press release, 20 September 2017, https://www.nato.int/cps/ua/natohq/news_146954.htm.
- 56.
United States Mission to NATO, “United States Non-paper: Defense Impacts of Potential United Nations General Assembly Nuclear Weapons Ban Treaty” (17 October 2016), http://www.icanw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/NATO_OCT2016.pdf.
- 57.
Wang Qun, “Statement by Ambassador Wang Qun,” 5.
- 58.
National Interest Analysis – Nuclear Weapon Prohibition Treaty, para. 16.
- 59.
Dunworth, “Negotiating Nuclear Disarmament,” p. 1, para. 1.2.
- 60.
“Pacific Conference on Conventional Weapons Treaties,” Implementation Support Unit of the Convention on Cluster Munitions, last modified 21 February 2018, http://www.clusterconvention.org/2018/02/21/pacific-conference-on-conventional-weapons-treaties/.
- 61.
UN Department for Disarmament Affairs, United Nations Study on Disarmament and Non-Proliferation Education: Report of the Secretary General, A/57/124 (30 August 2002). Dr Kate Dewes served as the New Zealand government’s expert.
- 62.
“Nuclear Proliferation Treaty: National Report Submitted by New Zealand,” NPT/CONF.2015/17, presented at the 2015 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), New York, 2015, 6–7, paras 23–28.
- 63.
New Zealand Press Association, “NZ Ready to Step up Efforts, Nuclear Summit Told,” New Zealand Herald, 14 April 2010.
- 64.
The votes in favour of New Zealand’s Security Council membership came mainly from other non-nuclear states in Asia, Africa and Latin America, not New Zealand’s traditional partners in the Western European and Others group. O’Brien (2009), p. 56.
- 65.
Similarly, despite the lack of a nuclear export industry, New Zealand is a member of the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
- 66.
Audrey Young, “Clinton: ‘NZ Punches Way Above Its Weight,’” New Zealand Herald, 4 November 2010.
- 67.
Kurt M Campbell, “Remarks on the Future of U.S.-New Zealand Relations” (speech, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, DC, 9 September 2010); Audrey Young, “Trade Talks High on Agenda at Key-Biden Meeting,” New Zealand Herald, 13 April 2010; “Why Obama Wants John Key at Summit,” New Zealand Herald, 13 April 2010; Young, “‘NZ Punches Way Above Its Weight.’”
- 68.
Anthony Hubbard, “‘Positive Response’ to Peters’ Anti-Nuke Talks in N Korea,” Sunday Star-Times, 18 November 2007.
- 69.
NBR staff, “North Korea a ‘Genuine Threat’ and NZ Will Play a Role If Asked: Ardern,” National Business Review, 18 November 2017.
- 70.
Winston Peters, “Foreign Minister Attends North Korea Meeting,” Government press release, 15 January 2018, https://www.beehive.govt.nz/release/foreign-minister-attends-north-korea-meeting.
- 71.
Arbatov (2015).
- 72.
See Ayson (2017).
- 73.
Brady (2017).
- 74.
Choucri (2012), p. 4.
- 75.
Grigsby (2017), p. 109.
- 76.
Robert Scheer, “Former Defense Secretary William Perry on the Nuclear Threat,” Huffington Post, 2 September 2017, https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/former-defense-secretary-william-perry-on-the-nuclear_us_59ab04c1e4b0bef3378cd8fc.
- 77.
David Kushner, “The Real Story of Stuxnet: How Kaspersky Lab Tracked down the Malware That Stymied Iran’s Nuclear-Fuel Enrichment Program,” IEEE Spectrum, 26 February 2013, https://spectrum.ieee.org/telecom/security/the-real-story-of-stuxnet.
- 78.
Abaimov and Ingram (2017), p. 4.
- 79.
Unal and Lewis (2017), ch. 6.
- 80.
GCSB and NZSIS, Briefing to the Incoming Minister: Minister Responsible for the GCSB and Minister Responsible for the NZSIS, 2017 (September 2017), p. 8, https://www.beehive.govt.nz/sites/default/files/2017-12/GCSB%20and%20NZSIS_0.PDF.
- 81.
“GCSB Points to Russian Cyber Attacks on NZ,” Radio New Zealand, 18 April 2018, https://www.radionz.co.nz/national/programmes/ninetonoon/audio/2018641184/gcsb-points-to-russian-cyber-attacks-on-nz.
- 82.
Tikk and Kerttunen (2017), p. 16.
- 83.
Hoverd (2017), p. 30.
- 84.
Nicky Hager, “Beans Spilled on US Ties,” Sunday Star Times, 12 December 2010, http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/4449695/US-cables-spill-beans-on-NZ-ties.
- 85.
Ryan Gallagher and Nicky Hager, “New Zealand Spies on Neighbours in Secret ‘Five Eyes’ Global Surveillance,” The Intercept, 5 March 2015, https://theintercept.com/2015/03/04/new-zealand-gcsb-surveillance-waihopai-xkeyscore/; Ryan Gallagher and Nicky Hager, “New Zealand Targets Trade Partners, Hacks Computers in Spy Operations,” The Intercept, 11 March 2015, https://theintercept.com/2015/03/10/new-zealand-gcsb-spying-trade-partners-nsa/; Ryan Gallagher and Nicky Hager, “Snowden Revelations / The Price of the Five Eyes Club: Mass Spying on Friendly Nations,” The New Zealand Herald, 5 March 2015.
- 86.
See, for example, the list of activities that justify the issuing of a warrant for electronic surveillance due to their potential to harm New Zealand national security: The Intelligence and Security Act 2017, Section 58 (2).
- 87.
Elias Groll, “Trump Elevates Cyber Command,” Foreign Policy, 18 August 2017, http://foreignpolicy.com/2017/08/18/trump-elevates-cyber-command/.
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Burford, L., Dewes, K. (2019). New Zealand and Disarmament: Where National and Global Interests Converge. In: Brady, AM. (eds) Small States and the Changing Global Order. The World of Small States, vol 6. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18803-0_19
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