Abstract
King uses archaeological and historical evidence to examine how the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains became imagined as a dangerous, primitive place in the nineteenth century. Detailing the unique history of human occupation in these mountains over the last two millennia, this chapter demonstrates how places that felt ‘wild’ could fuel impressions of disorder among those people responsible for taming African landscapes. King also draws attention to how the Maloti-Drakensberg join a global history of places whose wild-ness attracted people wanting to live outside of government control, including outlaws. Through a study of the ‘Bushman raiding’ campaigns of 1845–1872, this chapter introduces a crucial tension between appearance and reality: not only were the mountains less primitive than they appeared to some, but one person’s dangerous wilderness could be another’s strategic hub.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society, Council for World Mission Archives, London, W. Shepstone to Secretaries General of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, 16 July 1840. South Africa Correspondence Bechuana 1874–1867, Fiche Box Number 20.
- 2.
Material culture studies have drawn particularly upon Thrift’s work to push past the phenomenological turn of the last few decades, using Thrift’s interpretation of Giles Deleuze’s writing to demonstrate where affect can be located outside of the human body and in the wider world—creating a sphere in which human and non-human actors are both networked together and materialised. A result of this theoretical turn is that emotion and affect become material concerns, and thus archaeological concerns, as this book argues in keeping with, for example, Harris and Sørenson (2010) and Tarlow (2012).
- 3.
As described in Chap. 1, these comprise the Maloti Mountains in modern-day Lesotho and the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Mountains spanning aspects of South Africa’s KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape Provinces, separated by the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Escarpment.
- 4.
Morija Museum and Archives, Lesotho (henceforth, MMA), Transcript of pitso held 27–29 September 1909, Leselinyana la Lesotho 2 October 1909, trans. S. Gill and T. Pitso.
- 5.
Suggestions that mountains create a social and physical space from which particular moral economies may emerge also features in Spear (1997).
- 6.
Macfarlane notes that seventeenth-century writers often described mountains as ‘deserts’: the two were both aesthetically repellent and equally unable to foster the sort of fecundity that contemporary Westerners associated with attractiveness and civilisation.
- 7.
Although a different, coarser style of pottery found a few centuries earlier has led some archaeologists to propose that hunter-gatherers themselves may have learned to produce ceramics, see Hobart (2004).
- 8.
- 9.
- 10.
For recent revisions to the wild/domestic faunal assemblages at one highland site, see Horsburgh, et al. (2016).
- 11.
With the exception of one site (Strathalan A) the impression is that these domesticates arrived through opportunistic acquisition rather than a sustained programme of cultivation.
- 12.
Making the highlands better-suited to sustainable subsistence and even commercialised farming has been a major focus of modern development interventions, as chronicled most famously in James Ferguson’s (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine.
- 13.
Efforts to overcome the ‘wild’ and ‘domesticate’ binary are visible in both anthropological literature on the ‘New Animisms’ and human-animal subjectivities, and also in work by Ingold and Kristen Armstrong Oma. For the former, see for example Bird-David (1999) and Descola (2013). For the latter and the debate over ‘trust’ and ‘domination’ as an alternative framework, compare Ingold (2000), 61–76 and Oma (2007).
- 14.
The entanglement of ‘Bushman’ as a representational category with notions of criminality has a long history in southern Africa, stretching as far back as sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Dutch encounters with hunter-gatherer-pastoralists at the Cape, and referencing a range of physical, locative, linguistic, and material features. This is discussed in greater detail in Chap. 5 and mentioned briefly in Chap. 1, and see also Wright (1996) and Skotnes (1996).
- 15.
It was absorbed into the Cape Colony in 1844 and separated again in 1856.
- 16.
- 17.
Natal Mercury, 23 August 1850
- 18.
Natal Witness, 19 October 1860.
- 19.
KwaZulu-Natal Archives (henceforth, KZNA), Secretary for Native Affairs (henceforth, SNA) 1/3/19, p. 258, October 1868.
- 20.
For a full description of this raid and the extensive counter-measures organised against it, see KZNA, SNA 1/3/19, pp. 200–254, 1869.
- 21.
For example KZNA, Fynn Papers, No. 100, 13 October 1851, 1 October 1852.
- 22.
R.S. Webb’s Gazeteer for Basutoland (1950) was compiled and published by Captain R.S. Webb, with some editions featuring hand-written entries and annotations by Webb himself. I am grateful to Peter Sanders for allowing me to consult one of these in producing this book. The relevant pages here are 67 and 282.
- 23.
KZNA, SNA 1/3/19, p. 255, 19 October 1869.
- 24.
KZNA, Colonial Secretary’s Office (henceforth, CSO), 49(1), No. 73, 28 March 1849.
- 25.
KZNA, CSO, 28(2), No. 71, 18 August 1852.
- 26.
For example KZNA, J. Shepstone Papers, ‘Reminiscences of the Past’, pp. 63–65.
- 27.
- 28.
Natal Witness, 22 December 1848.
- 29.
Natal Witness 1869.
- 30.
MMA, Transcript of pitso held 27–29 September 1909, Leselinyana la Lesotho 2 October 1909.
- 31.
Cape Archives (henceforth, CA), A.6-‘79, Joseph Millerd Orpen’s evidence given 15 July 1879, in ‘Minutes of Evidence: Committee on Basutoland Hostilities’, Cape Parliamentary Papers.
- 32.
CA, A.6-‘79, James Ayliff’s evidence given 17 July 1879, in ‘Minutes of Evidence: Committee on Basutoland Hostilities’, Cape Parliamentary Papers.
- 33.
Indeed, major phases of road-building are linked to the emergence of extractive industries in Lesotho, especially diamond mining and dam-building in the north, and the construction of the Southern Perimeter Road in the 1980s. See Chap. 7 and Parkington and Poggenpoel (1982/1983) and Mitchell et al. (1994).
- 34.
Ben Smith’s (2010) familiar use of ‘insider/outsider’ in describing this context refers to emic versus etic perceptions of experience available through rock art, whereas my use of ‘outsider’ here is more about being within or without the mountains as a particular sort of sensuous space.
References
Barnard, A. (2002). Hunter-gatherers: Seventeenth- or eighteenth-century invention? Archaeological Dialogues, 9, 119–122.
Barnard, A. (2007). Anthropology and the Bushman. Oxford: Berg.
Beinart, W. (1984). Soil erosion, conservation and ideas about development: A southern African exploration. Journal of Southern African Studies, 11, 52–83.
Beinart, W. (2003). The rise of conservation in South Africa: Settlers, livestock and the environment, 1770–1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bird-David, N. (1999). Animism revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology. Current Anthropology, 40, S67–S91.
Bonneau, A., Staff, R. A., Higham, T., & Brock, F. (2017). Successfully dating rock art in southern Africa using improved sampling methods and new characterisation and pretreatment protocols. Radiocarbon, 59, 659–677.
Braudel, F. (1995). The Mediterranean: The Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Braun, L. F. (2014). Colonial survey and native landscapes in rural South Africa, 1850–1913. Leiden: Brill.
Campbell, C. (1986). Images of war: A problem in San rock art research. World Archaeology, 18, 255–268.
Campbell, C. (1987). Art in crisis: Contact period rock art in the south-eastern mountains of southern Africa. MSc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand.
Carter, P. (1978). The prehistory of eastern Lesotho. PhD dissertation, University of Cambridge.
Carter, P., Mitchell, P., & Vinnicombe, P. (1988). Sehonghong: The middle and later stone age industrial sequence from a Lesotho rockshelter. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Challis, S. (2008). The impact of the horse on the AmaTola ‘Bushmen’: New identity in the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains of southern Africa. PhD dissertation, University of Oxford.
Challis, S. (2012). Creolisation on the nineteenth-century frontiers of southern Africa: A case study of the AmaTola ‘Bushmen’ in the Maloti-Drakensberg. Journal of Southern African Studies, 38, 265–280.
Challis, S. (2014). Binding beliefs: The creolisation process in a ‘Bushman’ raider group in nineteenth-century southern Africa. In J. Deacon & P. Skotnes (Eds.), The courage of Kabbo. Celebrating the 100th anniversary of the publication of ‘specimens of bushman folklore’ (pp. 247–265). Cape Town: UCT Press.
Challis, S. (2016). Re-tribe and resist: The ethnogenesis of a creolised raiding band in response to colonialism. In C. Hamilton & N. Leibhammer (Eds.), Tribing and untribing the archive. Critical enquiry into the traces of the Thukela-Mzimkhulu region from the Early Iron Age until c. 1910 (pp. 282–299). Pietermaritzburg: UKZN Press.
Challis, S. (2019). Creolization in the investigation of rock art in the colonial era. In B. David & I. J. McNiven (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the archaeology and anthropology of rock art (pp. 611–634). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Descola, P. (2013). Beyond nature and culture (J. Lloyd, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Dowson, T. A. (1993). Changing fortunes of southern African archaeology: Comment on A.D. Mazel’s ‘history’. Antiquity, 67, 641–644.
Dowson, T. A. (1994). Reading art, writing history: Rock art and social change in southern Africa. World Archaeology, 25, 332–345.
Duminy, A., & Guest, B. (Eds.). (1989). Natal and Zululand from earliest times to 1910. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
Eldredge, E. A. (1993). A South African kingdom: The pursuit of security in nineteenth century Lesotho. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ferguson, J. (1990). The anti-politics machine: ‘Development’, depoliticization, and bureaucratic power in Lesotho. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Gardiner, A. F. (1836). Narrative of a journey to the Zoolu country in South Africa. London: W. Crofts.
Gellner, E. (1969). Saints of the Atlas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Guy, J. (2013). Theophilus Shepstone and the forging of Natal: African autonomy and settler colonialism in the making of traditional authority. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Hamilton, C. (1998). Terrific majesty: The powers of Shaka Zulu and the limits of historical intervention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hammond-Tooke, W. D. (1998). Selective borrowing? The possibility of San shamanistic influence on southern Bantu divination and healing practices. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 53, 9–15.
Hammond-Tooke, W. D. (1999). Divinatory animals: Further evidence of San/Nguni borrowing? South African Archaeological Bulletin, 54, 128–132.
Harris, O. J. T., & Sørenson, T. F. (2010). Rethinking emotion and material culture. Archaeological Dialogues, 17, 145–163.
Hoag, C. B. (2016a). Scratching about (Fato-fato): Erosion, governance, and the commodification of water in Lesotho. PhD dissertation, University of California at Santa Cruz.
Hoag, C. B. (2016b). Stability and change in African environments: An historical ecology of rangelands in Lesotho. PhD dissertation, Aarhus University.
Hobart, J. (2003). Forager-farmer relations in south-eastern southern Africa: A critical reassessment. PhD dissertation, University of Oxford.
Hobart, J. (2004). Pitsaneng: Evidence for a Neolithic Lesotho? Before Farming, Online Edition 4, Article 4.
Horsburgh, K. A., Moreno-Mayar, J. V., & Gosling, A. L. (2016). Revisiting the Kalahari debate in the highlands: Ancient DNA provides new faunal identifications at Sehonghong, Lesotho. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 51, 295–306.
How, M. W. (1962). The mountain Bushmen of Basutoland. Pretoria: J.L. Van Schaik Ltd.
Ingold, T. (2000). The perception of the environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling, and skill. London: Routledge.
Jimenez, R. F. (2017). Rites of reproduction: Gender, generation, and political economic transformation among Nguni-speakers of southern Africa, 8th–19th century CE. PhD thesis, Northwestern University.
Jolly, P. (1995). Melikane and upper Mangolong revisited: The possible effects on San art of symbiotic contact between south-eastern San and southern Sotho and Nguni communities. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 50, 68–80.
Jolly, P. (1996a). Interaction between south-eastern San and southern Nguni and Sotho communities, c.1400-c.1880. South African Historical Journal, 35, 35–61.
Jolly, P. (1996b). Symbiotic interactions between black farmers and south-eastern San: Implications for southern African rock art studies, ethnographic analogy and hunter-gatherer cultural identity. Current Anthropology, 37, 277–306.
Jolly, P. (2005). Sharing symbols: A correspondence in ritual dress of black farmers and south-eastern San. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 9, 86–100.
Jolly, P. (2006). Dancing with two sticks: Investigating the origins of a southern African rite. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 61, 172–180.
Jolly, P. (2007). Before farming? Cattle kept and painted by the south-eastern San. Before Farming, Online Edition, Article 2.
Kay, S. (1833). Travels and researches in Caffraria. London: John Mason.
Kelly, J. (2018). To swim with crocodiles: Land, violence, and belonging in South Africa, 1800–1996. Lansing: Michigan State University Press.
King, R. (2015). ‘A loyal liking for fair play’: Joseph Millerd Orpen and knowledge production in the Cape Colony. South African Historical Journal, 67, 410–432.
King, R. (2017). Living on edge: New perspectives on anxiety, refuge, and colonialism in southern Africa. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 27, 533–551.
King, R., & Challis, S. (2017). The ‘interior world’ of the nineteenth-century Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains. Journal of African History, 58, 213–237.
Lambert, J. (1995). Betrayed trust: Africans and the state in colonial Natal. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
Landau, P. S. (2010). Popular politics in the history of South Africa, 1400–1948. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis-Williams, J. D. (1981). Believing and seeing: Symbolic meaning in southern San rock paintings. London: Academic.
Lightfoot, K. G., & Martinez, A. (1995). Frontiers and boundaries in archaeological perspective. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 471–492.
Loftus, E., Stewart, B. A., Dewar, G., & Lee-Thorp, J. (2015). Stable isotope evidence of late MIS 3 to middle Holocene palaeoenvironments from Sehonghong Rockshelter, eastern Lesotho. Journal of Quaternary Science, 30, 805–816.
Loubser, J. H. N., & Laurens, G. (1992). Paintings of domestic ungulates and shields: Hunter-gatherers and agro-pastoralists in the Caledon River Valley area. In T. A. Dowson & J. D. Lewis-Williams (Eds.), Contested images: Diversity in southern African rock art research (pp. 83–118). Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Macfarlane, R. (2003). Mountains of the mind: A history of a fascination. London: Granta.
Macquarrie, J. W. (Ed.). (1958). The reminiscences of Sir Walter Stanford, 1850–1885, volume II. Cape Town: Van Riebeeck Society.
Maggs, T. (1994/1995). The Early Iron Age in the extreme south: Some patterns and problems. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 29(30), 171–178.
Maggs, T., & Ward, V. (1980). Driel shelter: Rescue at a Later Stone age site on the Tugela River. Annals of the Natal Museum, 24, 35–70.
Manhire, A. H., Parkington, J. E., Mazel, A. D., & Maggs, T. M. (1986). Cattle, sheep and horses: A review of domestic animals in the rock art of southern Africa. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series, 5, 22–30.
Mazel, A. (1986). Mbabane shelter and eSinhlonhlweni shelter: The last two thousand years of hunter-gatherer settlement in the central Thukela Basin, Natal, South Africa. Annals of the Natal Museum, 27, 389–453.
Mazel, A. (1989). People making history: The last ten thousand years of hunter-gatherer communities in the Thukela Basin. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 1, 1–189.
Mazel, A. (1990). Mhlwazini cave: The excavation of late Holocene deposits in the northern Natal Drakensberg, Natal, South Africa. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 4, 95–133.
Mazel, A. (1992a). Collingham shelter: The excavation of late Holocene deposits, Natal, South Africa. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 4, 1–51.
Mazel, A. (1992b). Early pottery from the eastern part of southern Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 47, 3–7.
Mazel, A., & Watchman, A. (2003). Dating rock paintings in the Ukhahlamba-Drakensberg and the Biggarsberg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 15, 59–73.
McCann, J. (1999). Green land, brown land, black land: An environmental history of Africa, 1800–1990. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McClendon, T. V. (2010). White chiefs, black lords: Shepstone and the colonial state in Natal, South Africa, 1845–1878. Rochester: University of Rochester Press.
McGranaghan, M. (2015). Hunters-with-sheep: The |Xam Bushmen of South Africa between pastoralism and foraging. Africa, 85, 521–545.
McGranaghan, M., & Challis, S. (2016). Reconfiguring hunting magic: San Bushman (San) perspectives on taming and their implications for understanding rock art. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 26, 579–599.
Miller, D., & Whitelaw, G. (1994). Early Iron Age metal working from the site of KwaGandaganda, Natal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 49, 79–89.
Mitchell, P. (1996a). Prehistoric exchange and interaction in southeastern southern Africa: Marine shells and ostrich eggshell. African Archaeological Review, 13, 35–76.
Mitchell, P. (1996b). Sehonghong: The late Holocene assemblages with pottery. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 51, 17–25.
Mitchell, P. (2002). The archaeology of southern Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mitchell, P. (2004). Some reflections on the spread of food-production in southernmost Africa. Before Farming, Online Edition, Article 2.
Mitchell, P. (2005). African connections: Archaeological perspectives on Africa and the wider world. Walnut Creek: AltaMira.
Mitchell, P. (2009a). Gathering together a history of the People of the eland: Towards an archaeology of Maloti-Drakensberg hunter gatherers. In P. Mitchell & B. Smith (Eds.), The eland’s people: New perspectives in the rock art of the Maloti-Drakensberg Bushmen. Essays in memory of Patricia Vinnicombe (pp. 99–136). Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Mitchell, P. (2009b). Hunter-gatherers and farmers: Some implications of 1,800 years of interaction in the Maloti-Drakensberg region of southern Africa. Senri Ethnological Studies, 73, 15–46.
Mitchell, P. (2010). Making history at Sehonghong: Soai and the last Bushman occupants of his shelter. Southern African Humanities, 22, 149–170.
Mitchell, P., & Arthur, C. (2012). Metolong cultural resource management: Phase 4 final report. Report for the Metolong Authority on behalf of the Commissioner of Water of the Lesotho Government. Oxford: School of Archaeology.
Mitchell, P., & Arthur, C. (2014). Ha Makotoko: Later stone age occupation across the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in western Lesotho. Journal of African Archaeology, 12, 205–232.
Mitchell, P., & Challis, S. (2008). A ‘first’ glimpse into the Maloti Mountains: The diary of James Murray Grant’s expedition of 1873–74. Southern African Humanities, 20, 399–461.
Mitchell, P., & Whitelaw, G. (2005). The archaeology of southernmost Africa from c. 2,000 BP to the early 1800s: A review of recent research. Journal of African History, 46, 209–241.
Mitchell, P., Parkington, J., & Yates, R. (1994). Recent Holocene archaeology in western and southern Lesotho. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 49, 33–52.
Mokoena, H. (2011). Magema Fuze: The making of a Kholwa intellectual. Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Morake, P. (2010). Documenting historical faunal change in Lesotho and the adjoining Free State of southern Africa. MSc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand.
Mucina, L., Hoare, D. B., Lötter, M. C., du Preez, P. J., Rutherford, M. C., Scott-Shaw, C. R., Bredenkamp, G. J., Powrie, L. W., Scott, L., Campt, K. G. T., Cilliers, S. S., Bezuidenhout, H., Mostert, T. H., Siebert, S. J., Winter, P. J. D., Burrows, J. E., Dobson, L., Ward, R. A., Stalmans, M., Oliver, E. G. H., Siebert, F., Schmidt, E., Kobisi, K., & Kose, L. (2006). Grassland biome. In L. Mucina & M. C. Rutherford (Eds.), The vegetation of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (pp. 348–437). Pretoria: South African National Biodiversity Institute.
Oma, K. A. (2007). Human animal relationships: Mutual becomings in Scandinavian and Sicilian households 900–500 BC. Oslo: Oslo Academic Press.
Opperman, H. (1987). The later stone age of the Drakensberg range and its foothills. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Opperman, H. (1990). A 300 year old living floor in Strathalan cave a, Maclear District, eastern Cape. Southern African Field Archaeology, 8, 76–80.
Orpen, J. M. (1874). A glimpse into the mythology of the Maluti Bushmen. Cape Monthly Magazine, 9, 1–13.
Pargeter, J. (2017). Lithic miniaturization in Late Pleistocene southern Africa. PhD dissertation, Stone Brook University.
Parkington, J., & Poggenpoel, C. (1982/1983). An archaeological reconnaissance along the southern Perimeter Road. Unpublished report for the Lesotho Ministry of Works.
Pluciennik, M. (2002). The invention of hunter-gatherers in seventeenth-century Europe. Archaeological Dialogues, 9, 98–118.
Robertshaw, P., Wood, M., Melchiorre, E., Popelka-Filcoff, R. S., & Glascock, M. D. (2010). Southern African glass beads: Chemistry, glass sources, and patterns of trade. Journal of Archaeological Science, 37, 1898–1912.
Scott, J. (2009). The art of not being governed: An anarchist history of upland Southeast Asia. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Showers, K. (2005). Imperial gullies: Soil erosion and conservation in Lesotho. Athens: Ohio University Press.
Skotnes, P. (Ed.). (1996). Miscast: Negotiating the presence of the Bushmen. Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.
Smith, B. (2010). Envisioning San history: Problems in the reading of history in the rock art of the Maloti-Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa. African Studies, 69, 345–359.
Spear, T. (1997). Mountain farmers: Moral economies of land and agricultural development in Arusha and Meru. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Stanford, W. E. (1910). Statement of Silayi, with reference to his life among the Bushmen. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa, 1, 435–440.
Stewart, B. A., & Mitchell, P. J. (2018). Late quaternary palaeoclimates and human-environment dynamics of the Maloti-Drakensberg region, southern Africa. Quaternary Science Reviews, 196, 1–20.
Stewart, B. A., Parker, A. G., Dewar, G., Morley, M. W., & Allott, L. F. (2016). Follow the Senqu: Maloti-Drakensberg palaeoenvironments and implications for early human dispersals into mountain systems. In S. Jones & B. Stewart (Eds.), Africa from MIS 6–2 (pp. 247–271). Cham: Springer.
Tarlow, S. (2012). The archaeology of emotion and affect. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 169–185.
Theal, G. M. (2002). In M. Thabane (Ed.), Basutoland records, Volumes IV-VI. Roma: Institute for Southern African Studies.
Thorp, C. (2000). Hunter-gatherers and farmers: An enduring frontier in the Caledon valley, South Africa. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
Thrift, N. (2004). Intensities of feeling: Towards a spatial politics of affect. Geografica Annaler, 86, 57–78.
Vinnicombe, P. (2009 [1976]). People of the eland: Rock paintings of the Drakensberg Bushmen as a reflection of their life and thought. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Vogel, J. C., & Fuls, A. (1999). Spatial distribution of radiocarbon dates for the Iron Age in southern Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 54, 97–101.
Wadley, L. (1992). Rose Cottage Cave: The later stone age levels with European and Iron Age artefacts. South African Archaeological Bulletin, 47, 8–12.
Whitelaw, G. (1991). Precolonial iron production around Durban and southern Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 3, 29–39.
Whitelaw, G. (1994/1995). Towards an Early Iron Age worldview: Some ideas from KwaZulu-Natal. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa, 29(30), 37–50.
Whitelaw, G., & Moon, M. (1996). The ceramics and distribution of pioneer agriculturists in KwaZulu-Natal. Natal Museum Journal of Humanities, 8, 53–79.
World Bank. (2016). Lesotho water security and climate change assessment. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Wright, J. B. (1971). Bushman raiders of the Drakensberg, 1840–1870. Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press.
Wright, J. B. (1996). Sonqua, Bosjesmans, Bushmen, abaThwa: Comments and queries on pre-modern identifications. South African Historical Journal, 35, 16–29.
Wright, J. B. (2007). Bushman raiders revisited. In P. Skotnes (Ed.), Claim to the country: The archive of Lucy Lloyd and Wilhelm Bleek (pp. 119–129). Johannesburg: Jacana.
Wright, J. B., & Mazel, A. D. (2007). Tracks in a mountain range. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
King, R. (2019). ‘Waste-howling wilderness’: The Maloti-Drakensberg as Unruly Landscape. In: Outlaws, Anxiety, and Disorder in Southern Africa. Cambridge Imperial and Post-Colonial Studies Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18412-4_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18412-4_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-18411-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-18412-4
eBook Packages: HistoryHistory (R0)