Skip to main content

The Road Ahead

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cultural Intelligence in the World of Work

Abstract

The globalization of the work environment suggests that the interest in understanding the effect of cultural differences on management behavior is unlikely to diminish any time soon. An important aspect of this endeavor is understanding individual variation in the ability of individuals to deal effectively with the cultural aspects of their environment. It is this need that the construct of cultural intelligence seeks to satisfy. However, in the fifteen years since the construct was introduced, we might rightly ask what we really know about this individual difference idea. In this chapter, we summarize our view of the current state of affairs with regard to the construct, evaluate alternative courses of action, suggest some issues that need to be resolved, and suggest some avenues for future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 89.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, B. A., & Armour-Thomas, E. (1993). Construct validation of metacognition. Journal of Psychology, 127, 203–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang, S., & Inkpen, A. C. (2008). Cultural intelligence and offshore outsourcing success: A framework of firm-level intercultural capability. Decision Sciences, 39, 337–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ang, S., & Van Dyne, L. (2008). Conceputalization of cultural intelligence: Definition, distinctiveness, and nomological network. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications (pp. 3–15). Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., & Koh, C. (2006). Personality correlates of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence. Group and Organization Management, 31, 100–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, D. (1998). Functional relations among constructs in the same content domain at different levels of analysis: A typology of composition models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 234–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, X.-P., Liu, D., & Portnoy, R. (2012). A multilevel investigation of motivational cultural intelligence, organizational diversity climate, and cultural sales: Evidence from U.S. real estate firms. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 93–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chua, R. Y. J., Morris, M. W., & Mor, S. (2012). Collaborating across cultures: Cultural metacognition and affect-based trust in creative collaboration. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118, 116–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chua, R. Y. J., & Ng, K. Y. (2017). Not just how much you know: Interactional effect of cultural knowledge and metacognition on creativity in a global context. Management and Organization Review, 13, 281–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cropanzano, R. (2009). Writing nonempirical articles for Journal of Management: General thoughts and suggestions. Journal of Management, 35, 1304–1311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crotty, S. K., & Brett, J. M. (2012). Fusing creativity: Cultural metacognition and teamwork in multicultural teams. Negotiation and Conflict Management Research, 5, 210–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowne, K. A. (2013). An empirical analysis of three intelligences. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 45(2), 105–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dabic, M., González-Loureiro, M., & Harvey, M. C. (2015). Evolving research on expatriates: What is ‘known’ after four decades (1970–2012). International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(3), 316–337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education: The Kappa Delta Pi lecture series. New York, NY: Kappa Delta Pi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamantopoulos, A. (2005). The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing: A comment. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 22(1), 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dumont, J.-C., & Lemaître, G. (2005). Counting immigrants and expatriates in OECD countries: A new perspective. In OECD social, employment and migration working papers (Vol. 25). Paris: OECD Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earley, P. C. (2002). Redefining interactions across cultures and organizations: Moving forward with cultural intelligence. Research in Organizational Behavior, 24, 271–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Earley, P. C., & Peterson, R. S. (2004). The elusive cultural chameleon: Cultural intelligence as a new approach to intercultural training for the global manager. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 3, 100–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J., Lee, H.-J., Brück, F., Brenner, B., Claes, M., Mironski, J., et al. (2013). Can business schools make students culturally competent? Effects of cross-cultural management courses on cultural intelligence. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12, 603–621.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erez, M., Lisak, A., Harush, R., Glikson, E., Nouri, R., & Shokef, E. (2013). Going global: Developing management students´ cultural intelligence and global identity in culturally diverse virtual teams. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12, 303–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, R. (2011). Cross-cultural training effects on cultural essentialism beliefs and cultural intelligence. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35, 767–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzsimmons, S. R., Liao, Y., & Thomas, D. C. (2017). From crossing cultures to straddling them: An empirical examination of outcomes for multicultural employees. Journal of International Business Studies, 48, 63–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabrenya, W. K. Jr., Van Driel, M., Culhane, E., Turner, S., Pathak, J., & Peterson, S. (2011). Validating the Cultural Intelligence Scale: What does it really measure? Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelfand, M. J., Imai, L., & Fehr, R. (2008). Thinking intelligently about cultural intelligence. In S. Ang & L. Van Dyne (Eds.), Handbook of cultural intelligence: Theory, measurement, and applications (pp. 375–387). New York: M. E. Sharpe Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves, K. S., & Feyerherm, A. E. (2011). Leader cultural intelligence in context: Testing the moderating effects of team cultural diversity on leader and team performance. Group and Organization Management, 36, 535–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hong, Y.-Y., Morris, M. W., Chiu, C.-Y., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2000). Multicultural minds: A dynamic constructivist approach to culture and cognition. American Psychologist, 55, 709–720.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, A. (1964). The conduct of inquiry: Methodology for behavioral science. San Francisco, CA: Chandler Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, K. L., Dansereau, F., & Hall, R. J. (1994). Levels issues in theory development, data collection, and analysis. Academy of Management Review, 19(2), 195–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as a source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozlowski, S. W. J., & Klein, K. J. (2000). A multilevel approach to theory and research in organizations: Contextual, temporal and emergent processes. In K. J. Klein & S. W. J. Kozlowski (Eds.), Multilevel theory, research, and methods in organizations (pp. 3–90). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lance, C. E., Hoffman, B. J., Gentry, W. A., & Baranik, L. E. (2008). Rater source factors represent important subcomponents of the criterion construct space, not rater bias. Human Resource Management Review, 18, 223–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Law, K. S., Wong, C.-S., & Mobley, W. H. (1998). Toward a taxonomy of multidimensional constructs. Academy of Management Review, 23, 741–755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K., Ang, S., & Tan, M. L. (2014). Intercultural competence. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology, 1, 489–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, K.-Y., Lee, S.-L., & Chiu, C.-Y. (2013). Meta-knowledge of culture promotes cultural competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 992–1006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lievens, F., Harris, M. M., Van Keer, E., & Bisqueret, C. (2003). Predicting cross-cultural training performance: The validity of personality, cognitive ability, and dimensions measured by an assessment center and a behavior description interview. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 476–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz, M. P., Franke, G. R., Ramsey, J. R., Clampit, J. A., Maalouf, J., Abi Aad, A. A., et al. (2017). The Cultural Intelligence Scale: Level of analysis, aggregations, and misspecifications. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Academy of International Business, Dubai, UAE.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacNab, B. R. (2012). An experiential approach to cultural intelligence education. Journal of Management Education, 36, 66–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacNab, B. R., & Worthley, R. (2012). Individual characteristics as predictors of cultural intelligence development: The relevance of self-efficacy. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36, 62–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, P., Schuster, A., & Taras, V. (2014). A process-based explanation of the psychic distance paradox: Evidence from global virtual teams. Management International Review, 54, 283–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, T. (2010). Organizational cultural intelligence: Dynamic capability perspective. Group and Organization Management, 35, 456–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moon, T. (2013). The effects of cultural intelligence on performance in multicultural teams. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 2414–2425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mor, S., Morris, M. W., & Joh, J. (2013). Identifying and training adaptive cross-cultural management skills: The crucial role of cultural metacognition. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 12, 453–475.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ott, D. L., & Michailova, S. (2016). Cultural intelligence: A review and new research avenues. International Journal of Management Reviews, 20, 99–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rockstuhl, T., Ang, S., Ng, K.-Y., Lievens, F., & Van Dyne, L. (2015). Putting judging situations into situational judgment tests: Evidence from intercultural multimedia SJTs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 464–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rockstuhl, T., & Van Dyne, L. (2018). A bi-factor theory of the four-factor model of cultural intelligence: Metaanalysis and theoretical extensions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 148, 124–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossiter, J. R. (2002). The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 19(4), 305–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rousseau, D. M. (1985). Issues of level in organizational research: Multi-level and cross-level perspectives. In L. L. Cummings & B. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 7, pp. 1–37). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Șahin, F., Gurbuz, S., & Köksal, O. (2014). Cultural intelligence (CQ) in action: The effects of personality and international assignment on the development of CQ. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 39, 152–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlaegel, C., Richte, N. F., & Taras, V. (2017). Cultural intelligence and work-related outcomes: A meta-analytic review. In Academy of Management Proceedings (Vol. 2017, No. 14152). https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2017.229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sieck, W. R., Smith, J. L., & Rasmussen, L. J. (2013). Metacognitive strategies for making sense of cross-cultural encounters. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1007–1023.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, G. L., Fulmer, I. S., & Barrick, M. R. (2005). An exploration of member roles as multilevel linking mechanism for individual traits and team outcomes. Personnel Psychology, 58, 343–365.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suedfeld, P., Tetlock, P. E., & Streufert, S. (1992). Conceptual/integrative complexity. In C. P. Smith (Ed.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 393–400). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tadmor, C. T., Galinksy, A. D., & Maddux, W. W. (2012). Getting the most out of living abroad: Biculturalism and integrative complexity as key drivers of creative and professional success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 103, 520–542.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tadmor, C. T., & Tetlock, P. E. (2006). Biculturalism: A model of the effects of second-culture exposure on acculturation and integrative complexity. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 37, 173–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C. (2016). The multicultural mind: Unleashing the hidden force for innovation in your organization. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., Brannen, M. Y., & Garcia, D. (2010). Bicultural individuals and intercultural effectiveness. European Journal of Cross-Cultural Competence and Management, 1, 315–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., Cuervo-Cazurra, A., & Brannen, M. Y. (2011). From the editors: Explaining theoretical relationships in international business research: Focusing on the arrows, NOT the boxes. Journal of International Business Studies, 42, 1073–1078.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., Elron, E., Stahl, G., Ekelund, B. Z., Ravlin, E. C., Cerdin, J.-L., et al. (2008). Cultural intelligence: Domain and assessment. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 8(2), 123–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., & Inkson, K. (2017). Cultural intelligence: Surviving and thriving in the global village. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., Liao, Y., Aycan, Z., Cerdin, J.-L., Pekerti, A. A., Ravlin, E. C., et al. (2015). Cultural intelligence: A theory-based, short form measure. Journal of International Business Studies, 46, 1099–1118.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., & Peterson, M. F. (2017). Cross-cultural management: Essential concepts (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, D. C., Stahl, G., Ravlin, E. C., Poelmans, S., Pekerti, A., Maznevski, M., et al. (2012). Development of the cultural intelligence assessment. In W. H. Mobley (Ed.), Advances in global leadership (pp. 155–178). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • van de Vijver, F., & Leung, K. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van der Zee, K., & Van Oudenhoven, J. P. (2013). The role of personality as a determinant of intercultural competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 928–940.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Driel, M., & Gabrenya, W. K., Jr. (2013). Organizational cross-cultural competence: Approaches to measurement. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 874–899.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, C., Fischer, R., Lam, F. S. Z., & Hall, L. (2009). The convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of scores on a self-report measure of cultural intelligence. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 69, 85–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J., Ward, C., Fetvadjiev, V. H., & Bethel, A. (2017). Measuring cultural competencies: The development and validation of a revised measure of sociocultural adaptation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48, 1475–1506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, J., Ward, C., & Fischer, R. (2013). Beyond culture learning theory: What can personality tell us about cultural competence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 900–927.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yuan Liao .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Liao, Y., Thomas, D.C. (2020). The Road Ahead. In: Cultural Intelligence in the World of Work. Springer Series in Emerging Cultural Perspectives in Work, Organizational, and Personnel Studies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18171-0_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics