Abstract
Heterogeneity is one of the most complex problems in subsurface formations, and it is ubiquitous in many geoscience disciplines. Fluid storage and flow in porous media are governed by a variety of geological and petrophysical variables, including structure, stratigraphy, facies, lithology, porosity, and permeability. These variables all contribute to subsurface heterogeneities and have different scales, often in a hierarchical scheme.
Although this book is more focused on quantitative analyses of geospatial properties, this chapter introduces several topics on descriptive and (semi)quantitative analyses of geological and petrophysical variables, mainly regarding their scales and heterogeneities. These will provide a foundation for more quantitative analysis in other chapters.
There is no absolute scale of size in the Universe, for it is boundless towards the great and also boundless towards the small.
Oliver Heaviside
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Allen, J. R. L. (1983). Studies in fluviatile sedimentation: Bars, bar complexes and sandstone sheets (low sinuosity braided streams) in the Brownstones (L. Devonian), Welsh Borders. Sedimentary Geology, 33, 237–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(83)90076-3.
Barlow, J. A., Jr., & Haun, J. D. (1970). Regional stratigraphy of frontier formation and relation to salt creek field, Wyoming. In M. T. Halbouty (Ed.), Geology of giant petroleum fields (AAPG Memoir 14). Tulsa.
Beaubouef, R.T., Rossen, C., Zelt, F. B., Sullivan, M. D., Mohig, D. C., & Jennette, D. C. (1999). Deep-water sandstone, Brushy Canyon formation, West Texas, AAPG Hedberg Field Research Conference, April 15–20.
Begg, S. H., & King, P. R. (1985). Modeling the effects of shales on reservoir performance: Calculation of effective permeability. Society of Petroleum Engineers Simulation Symposium, Dallas, Texas, February 10–13, SPE paper 13529.
Brookfield, M. E. (1977). The origin of bounding surfaces in ancient aeolian sandstones. Sedimentology, 24, 303–332.
Campbell, C. V. (1967). Lamina, laminaset, bed, bedset. Sedimentology, 8, 7–26.
Cao, R., Sun, C., & Ma, Y. Z. (2015). Modeling wettability variation during long-term water flooding. Journal of Chemistry, 2015, 592951.
Cao, R., Wang, Y., Cheng, L., Ma, Y. Z., Tian, X., & An, N. (2016). A new model for determining the effective permeability of tight formation. Transport in Porous Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-016-0623-0.
Cao, et al. (2017). Gas-water flow behavior in water-bearing tight gas reservoirs. Geofluids, 2017, 9745795. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/974595.
Chiles, J. P., & Delfiner, P. (2012). Geostatistics: Modeling spatial uncertainty. New York: Wiley, 699 p.
Delhomme, A. E. K., & Giannesini, J. F. (1979). New reservoir description technics improve simulation results in Hassi-Messaoud field – Algeria. Society of Petroleum Engineers. https://doi.org/10.2118/8435-MS.
Filak, J.-M., Ryzhov, S. A., Ibrahim, M., Dashti, L., Al-Houti, R. A., Ma, E. D. C., & Wang, Y. (2013). Upscaling a 900 million-cell static model to dynamic model of the world largest clastic oil field – Greater Burgan Field, Kuwait. Society of Petroleum Engineers. https://doi.org/10.2118/167280-MS.
Fitch, P. J. R., Lovell, M. A., Davies, S. J., Pritchard, T., & Harvey, P. K. (2015). An integrated and quantitative approach to petrophysical heterogeneity. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 63, 82–96.
Gotway, C. A., & Young, L. J. (2002). Combining incompatible spatial data. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 97(458), 632–648.
Haldorsen, H. H., & Lake, L. (1984). A new approach to shale management in field scale models. Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal, 24, 447–457.
Haq, B. U., Hardenbol, J., & Vail, P. R. (1987). Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic. Science, 235(4793), 1156–1167.
Jones, T. A., & Ma, Y. Z. (2001). Geologic characteristics of hole-effect variograms calculated from lithology-indicator variables. Mathematical Geology, 33(5), 615–629.
Kendall, C. G, St. C. (2012). SEPM STRATA. Website. http://www.sepmstrata.org/. Last Accessed 16 Feb 2018.
Kendall, C. G. (2014). Sequence stratigraphy. Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6644-0_178-1.
Lake, L. W., & Jensen, J. L. (1991). A review of heterogeneity measures used in reservoir characterization. In Situ, 15(4), 409–439.
Li, S., Ma, Y. Z., Yu, X., Jiang, P., Li, M., & Li, M. (2014). Change of deltaic depositional environment and its impacts on reservoir properties—A braided delta in South China Sea. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 58, 760–775.
Ma, Y. Z., Seto, A., & Gomez, E. (2008). Frequentist meets spatialist: A marriage made in reservoir characterization and modeling. SPE 115836, SPE ATCE, Denver, CO.
Ma, Y. Z., Seto, A., & Gomez, E. (2009). Depositional facies analysis and modeling of Judy Creek reef complex of the Late Devonian Swan Hills. Alberta, Canada, AAPG Bulletin.
Ma, Y. Z., Gomez, E., Young, T. L., Cox, D. L., Luneau, B., & Iwere, F. (2011). Integrated reservoir modeling of a Pinedale tight-gas reservoir in the Greater Green River Basin, Wyoming. In Y. Z. Ma & P. LaPointe (Eds.), Uncertainty analysis and reservoir modeling (AAPG Memoir 96). Tulsa.
Mayuga, M. N. (1970). Geology and development of California’s Giant-Wilmington Oil Field. In Geology of giant petroleum fields (AAPG Memoir 14). Tulsa.
Miall, A. D. (1985). Architectural-element analysis: A new method of facies analysis applied to fluvial deposits. Earth Science Reviews, 22, 261–308.
Miall, A. (2016). Stratigraphy: A modern synthesis. New York: Springer.
Middleton, G. V. (1973). Johannes Walther’s Law of the correlation of facies. GSA Bulletin, 84(3), 979–988.
Mitchum, R. M., Vail, P. R., & Thompson, S., III. (1977). Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level: Part 2. The depositional sequence as a basic unit for stratigraphic analysis. AAPG Memoir, 26, 53–62.
Neal, J., & Abreu, V. (2009). Sequence stratigraphy hierarchy and the accommodation succession method. Geology, 37, 779–782.
Pickering, K. T., & Corregidor, J. (2000) 3D Reservoir scale study of Eocene confined submarine fans, south central Spanish Pyrenees. In P. Weimer, R.M. Slatt, J. Coleman, N.C. Rosen, H. Nelson, A.H. Bouma, M.J. Styzen, and D.T. Lawrence (Eds.), Deep Water Reservoirs of the World: SEPM, Gulf Coast Section, 20th Annual Bob F. Perkins Research Conference, p. 776–781.
Pickering, K. T., Stow, D. A. V., Watson, M. P., & Hiscott, R. N. (1986). Deep-water facies, processes and models: A review and classification scheme for modern and ancient sediments. Earth Science Reviews, 23, 75–174.
Schlager, W. (1992). Sedimentology and sequence stratigraphy of reefs and carbonate platforms (AAPG Continuing Education Course Notes Series, v. 34), Tulsa, 71 p.
Sprague, A. R., Patterson, P. E., Hill, R. E., Jones, C. R., Campion, K. M., Van Wagoner, J. C., Sullivan, M. D., Larue, D. K., Feldman, H. R., Demko, T. M., Wellner, R. W., Geslin, J. K. (2002). The Physical stratigraphy of Fluvial strata: A hierarchical approach to the analysis of genetically related stratigraphic elements for improved reservoir prediction, (Abstract) AAPG Annual Meeting.
Sprague, A. R. G., Garfield, T. R., Goulding, F. J., Beaubouef, R. T., Sullivan, M. D., Rossen, C., Campion, K. M., Sickafoose, D. K., Abreu, D., Schellpeper, M. E., Jensen, G. N., Jennette, D. C., Pirmez, C., Dixon, B. T., Ying, D., Ardill, J., Mohrig, D. C., Porter, M. L., Farrell, M. E., & Mellere, D. (2005). Integrated slope channel depositional models: The key to successful prediction of reservoir presence and quality in offshore West Africa. CIPM, cuarto E-Exitep. Veracruz, Mexico.
Vail, P. R., & Mitchum, R. M. (1977). Seismic stratigraphy and global changes of sea level: Part 1. Overview (AAPG Memoir 26). Tulsa: AAPG.
Van Wagoner, J. C., Mitchum, R. M., Campion, K. M., & Rahmanian, V. D. (1990). Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy in well logs, cores, and outcrops (AAPG Methods in Exploration Series, No. 7). Tulsa, 55 p.
Walker, R. G. (1984). Facies models (2nd ed.). Geoscience Canada.
Weimer, P., & Posamentier, H. (1993). Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy (AAPG memoir 58). Tulsa.
Wilson, J. L. (1975). Carbonate facies in geologic history. New York: Springer Verlag, 471p.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Appendices
Appendices
1.1 Appendix 8.1 Large-Scale Tectonic Settings and their Characteristics
Stress/strain field | Contraction with deep, basement-involved thick packages | Contraction with shallow, moderate-thick packages | Extension with deep, basement-involved thick packages | Extension with shallow, moderate-thick packages | Strike-slip | Lateral flow of mobile substrate |
Setting | Foreland cratonic uplifts | Accretionary wedge, passive margin slope or foreland fold belts | Rifts | Passive margin | Rifts, plate margins and tear faults | Accretionary wedge, passive margin or delta |
Delta slope | ||||||
Faults | Deeply penetrating steep faults, block-faulted arrays, dogleg fault networks | Imbricate thrust arrays, tear faults and relays, | Deeply penetrating steep faults, block-faulted arrays, dogleg fault networks | Listric, tear faults, growth faults | Deeply penetrating steep faults, faults en echelon, horse-tail splays, listric tear faults | Listric growth faults, folded faults, crestal grabens |
Folds | Broad uplifts, drape folds, monoclines | Fault-bend folds, detachment folds, relay ramp folds | Broad uplifts, drape folds, monoclines | Rollovers, fault-bend folds | En echelon folds, positive flower structures, fault-bend folds, rollovers | Pillows, turtles, domes, detachment, monoclines |
Strata | Deformed upper strata regionally, low to moderate shortening | Vertical duplication of strata, extensive shortening | Deformed lower strata regionally, low to moderate extension | Missing vertical strata, large extension | Offsets of markers, fault-throw reversals along strike | Strata interruptions, diapirs |
Reservoir traps | Broad anticlines, fault closures | Faulted anticlines, stacked anticlines | Tilted fault blocks, horsts, fault closures, strata traps | Rollovers fault closures | Fault closures along flanks of flowers, rollovers, faulted folds, fault blocks | Flank monoclines, domes, strata traps |
1.2 Appendix 8.2 Sequence Stratigraphic Hierarchy in Fluvial Setting
A sequence stratigraphic analysis can use either a top-down classification or a bottom-up classification of hierarchical stratigraphic elements and facies. Brookfield (1977) subdivided sedimentary formations using hierarchical order and surface boundaries. Allen (1983) described braided-stream fluviatile systems while recognizing eight geometrical shapes with specific lithologies and fabrics that were termed architectural elements. Miall (1985) extended architectural elements to other fluvial depositional systems. Pickering and Corregidor (2000) subdivided deepwater sedimentary bodies, recognizing a hierarchy of enveloping boundaries that separated genetically related stratigraphic architectural elements. The application of the concepts of architectural elements is now widely used for many depositional systems.
Sprague et al. (2002, 2005) used a top-down hierarchical classification of architectural elements for fluvial and deepwater settings that starts at a sedimentary basin scale. Successive downward subdivisions of the large-scale depositional systems form a series of elements that includes the channel complex systems, downward to channel complex sets, to channel complexes, to laminae (sometimes even to individual sand grains). This top-down classification is used to provide a framework for studies of the multiscale aspect of hierarchical stratigraphic elements and interrelated large-scale architectural elements and small-scale architectural elements. A bottom-up approach is equally valid, as shown by Kendall (2012) for fluvial settings (Fig. 8.16).
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ma, Y.Z. (2019). Multiscale Heterogeneities in Reservoir Geology and Petrophysical Properties. In: Quantitative Geosciences: Data Analytics, Geostatistics, Reservoir Characterization and Modeling. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17860-4_8
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17860-4_8
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-17859-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-17860-4
eBook Packages: EnergyEnergy (R0)