Abstract
This chapter describes normal and pathological findings in the knee and leg of pediatric patients by ultrasound. Knee joint is accessible but with a complex anatomy, especially in early stages of development due to cartilage and growing structures.
Ultrasonography as an image technique is ideal because it provides enough elements for the evaluation of the joint and soft tissue structures in the children. By performing a structured examination with dynamic movements, it also allows to determine inflammatory and mechanical lesions in the different stages of maturation of the children.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Magni-Manzoni S, Collado P, Jousse-Jouline S, Naredo E, D’Agostino MA, Muratore V, et al. Current state of musculoskeletal ultrasound in pediatric rheumatology. Results of an international survey. Rheumatology. 2014;53(3):491–6.
Dwek JR, Chung CB. The patellar extensor apparatus of the knee. Pediatr Radiol. 2008;38:925–35.
Makris EA, Pasha Hadidi BS, Athanasiou KA. The knee meniscus: structure-function, pathophysiology, current repair techniques, and prospects for regeneration. Biomaterials. 2011;32(30):7411–31.
Constantine JL. Observations on discoid menisci. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1950;32(3):649–52.
Nevell RLM. Leg. In: Standring S, editor. Gray’s anatomy. The anatomical basis of clinical practice. 39th ed. Baltimore: Elsevier Churchill Livingstone; 2006. p. 1489–506.
Karmazyn B. Ultrasound of pediatric musculoskeletal disease: from head to toe. Semin Ultrasound CT MRI. 2011;32:142–50.
Keller MS. Musculoskeletal sonography in the neonate and infant. Pediatr Radiol. 2005;35:1167–73.
Bianchi S, Martinoli C. General: muscle and tendon and, Pediatric applications: pediatric musculoskeletal ultrasound. In: Ultrasound of the musculoskeletal system. Berlin: Springer; 2007. p. 45–96, 921–959.
Markowitz RI, Hubbard AM, Harty MP, Bellah RD, Kessler A, Meyer JS. Sonography of the knee in normal and abused infants. Pediatr Radiol. 1993;23(4):264–7.
Möller I, Janta J, Backhaus M, Ohrdorf S, Bong DA, Martinoli C. The 2017 EULAR standardized procedures for ultrasound imaging in rheumatology. Ann Rheum Dis. 2017;76:1974–9.
Bakchaus M, Burmester GR, Gerber G, Grassi W, Machold KP, Swen WA. Guidelines for musculoskeletal ultrasound in rheumatology. Ann Rheum Dis. 2001;60:641–9.
Paz CR, Esperanza, NS. Exploración de la rodilla. En: Médicos SA, Editores. Ecografía de la anatomía infantil. Primer Edición. Madrid: EDIMSA; 2007. p. 26–33.
Kim JS, Jong Yun S, Jin W, Young GK, Young Park S, Nam Ryu K. A focal defect at the lateral patellar retinaculum on clinical knee MRI and cadaveric study: a normal variant or pathologic lesion? AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2017;208(5):1103–9.
Herman AM, Marzo JM. Popliteal cysts: a current review. Orthopedics. 2014;37(8):e678–84.
Collado, Ramos P. Use of ultrasonography in the pediatric patient. In: Wakefield RJ, D’Agostino MA, editors. Essentials applications of musculoskeletal ultrasound in rheumatology. 1st ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2010. p. 207–10.
Kaneuchi Y, Otoshi K, Hakozaki M, Sekiguchi M, Watanabe K, Igari T, Konno S. Bony maturity of the tibial tuberosity regard to age and sex and its relationship to pathogenesis of Osgood-Schlatter disease. An ultrasonographic study. Orthop J Sports Med. 2018;6(1):2325967117749184.
Ducher G, Cook J, Spurrier D, Coombs P, Ptasznik R, Black J, Bass S. Ultrasound imaging of the patellar tendon attachment to the tibia during puberty: a 12-month follow-up in tennis players. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20:e35–40.
Zbigniew C. Osgood-Schlatter disease in ultrasound diagnostics – a pictorial essay. Med Ultrason. 2010;12(4):323–35.
Kuehnast M, Mahomed N, Mistry B. Sinding-Larsen-Johansson syndrome. SAJCH. 2012;6(3):90–2.
Patel DR, Villalobos A. Evaluation and management of knee pain in young athletes: overuse injuries of the knee. Transl Pediatr. 2017;6(3):190–8.
Hasler CC, Studer D. Patella instability in children and adolescent. EFORT Open Rev. 2016;1. https://doi.org/10.1302/2058-5241.1.000018.
Maloney E, Stanescu AL, Ngo AV, Parisi MT, Iyer RS. The pediatric patella: normal development, anatomical variants and malformations, stability, imaging, and injury patterns. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2018;22:81–94.
Hunt DM, Somashekar N. A review of sleeve fractures of the patella in children. Knee. 2005;12(1):3–7.
Leschied JR, Gaetke Udager K. Imaging of the pediatric knee. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2017;21:137–46.
Zhang G, Zheng L, Shi H, Ji B, Feng Y, Ding H. Injury patterns of medial patellofemoral ligament after acute lateral patellar dislocation in children: correlation analysis with anatomical variants and articular cartilage lesion of the patella. Eur Radiol. 2017;27(3):1322–30.
Zhang G, Zheng L, Ding H, Li E, Sun B, Shi H. Evaluation of medial patellofemoral ligament tears after acute lateral patella dislocation: comparison of high-frequency ultrasound and MR. Eur Radiol. 2015;25(1):274–81.
Trihka SP, Acton D, O’Reilly M, Curtis MJ, Bell J. Acute lateral dislocation of the patella: correlation of ultrasound scanning with operative findings. Injury. 2003;34(8):568–71.
O’Dell C, Jaramillo D, Bancroft L, Varich L, Longsdon G, Servaes S. Imaging of sports related injuries of the lower extremity in pediatric patients. Radiographics. 2016;36:1807–27.
Mikkilineni H, Delzel BP, Andrish J, Bullen J, Obuchowski NA, Subhas N, et al. Ultrasound evaluation of infrapatellar fat pad impingement: an exploratory prospective study. Knee. 2018;25(2):279–85.
Robben SGF. Ultrasonography of musculoskeletal infections in children. Eur Radiol. 2004;14:L65–77.
Garcés-Iñigo EF, Guasp Vizcaino M, Gomez Fernandez-Montes J. Musculoskeletal imaging in pediatrics emergencies: the basics through three clinical scenarios. Radiologia. 2016;58(Suppl 2):104–18.
Chaturvedi A, Cain U, Rupasov A. The acutely limping school and school-age child: an imaging perspective. Semin Musculoskelet Radiol. 2018;22:46–56.
Ravelli A, Martini A. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Lancet. 2007;369:767–78.
Wakefield RJ, Green MJ, Marzo-Ortega H, Conaghan PG, Gibbon WW, McGonagle D, et al. Should oligoarthritis be reclassified? Ultrasound reveals a high prevalence of subclinical disease. Ann Rheum Dis. 2004;63:382–5.
Magni-Manzoni S, Epis O, Ravelli A, Klersy C, Veisconti C, Lanni S, Muratore V, Sciré CA, Rossi S, Montecucco C. Comparison of clinical versus ultrasound-determined synovitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:1497–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.24823.
Jousse-Joulin S, Breton S, Cangemi C, Fenoll B, Bressolette L, de Parscau L, Saraux A, Devauchelle-Pensec V. Ultrasonography for detecting enthesitis in juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Arthritis Care Res. 2011;63:849–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.20444.
Roth J, Ravagnani V, Backhaus M, Balint P, Bruns A, Bruyn GA et al., Omeract Ultrasound Group. Preliminary definitions for the sonographic features of synovitis in children. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2016;16. https://doi.org/10.1002/acr.23130.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Khalil, A.A.F., Hernández-Díaz, C. (2020). Knee and Leg. In: El Miedany, Y. (eds) Pediatric Musculoskeletal Ultrasonography. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17824-6_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17824-6_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-17823-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-17824-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)