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Contemporary Art and Unforgetting in Colonial Landscapes pp 31–75Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

The Global South: Disappearing Beneath the Equator

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Part of the book series: Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies ((PMMS))

Abstract

This chapter explores Aotearoa, Australia and carceral islands of the South. With a focus on the Aboriginal prison island of Wadjemup/Rottnest Island, it considers this landscape as a microcosm of empire. The chapter concludes with consideration of the residue of an empire of islands in the present-day carceral islands of Nauru and Manus.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Agnew, V (2003) ‘Pacific Island Encounters and Race’. In Edmond, R & Smith, V (eds.) Islands in History and Representation. London: Routledge, p. 85.

  2. 2.

    Burns, P (1989) Fatal Success: A History of the New Zealand Company. Heinemann Reed.

  3. 3.

    Orange, C (1989) The Story of a Treaty. Wellington: Allen & Unwin.

  4. 4.

    Hill, R (2009) ‘Maori and State Policy’. In Byrnes, Giselle (ed.) The New Oxford History of New Zealand. Oxford University Press.

  5. 5.

    Wehi, PM, Whaanga, H, & Roa, T (2009) ‘Missing in Translation: Maori Language and Oral Tradition in Scientific Analyses of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)’. Journal of Royal Society of New Zealand, 39 (4), 201–204.

  6. 6.

    Kunitz, S (1994) Disease and Social Diversity: The European Impact on the Health of Non-Europeans. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  7. 7.

    Lashley, M (2006) ‘Remedying Racial and Ethnic Inequality in New Zealand: Reparative and Distributive Policies of Social Justice’. In Myers, Samuel L, & Corrie, Bruce P (eds.) Racial and Ethnic Economic Inequality: An International Perspective, vol. 1996. New York: Peter Lang.

  8. 8.

    McMahon , E (2010) ‘Australia , the Island Continent: How Contradictory Geography Shapes the National Imaginary’. Space and Culture, 13 (2), 178–187. Sage.

  9. 9.

    Fieldhouse, DK (1999) The West and the Third World: Trade, Colonialism, Dependence and Development. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 145–149.

  10. 10.

    Keneally (2007) The Commonwealth of Thieves. London: Vintage Books, p. 3.

  11. 11.

    On average about 1000 convicts each year had been shipped to the Americas to help with the building of infrastructure. However, because free settlers had moved in significant numbers (many because of religious intolerance in Britain), there was not the same requirement for labour. For exact data on convict transportees to the Americas, see the British National Archives. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/transportation-australia.htm also, Coldham, PW (1983) Bonded Passengers to America. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing.

  12. 12.

    Campbell, C (2001) The Intolerable Hulks: British Shipboard Confinement. Tucson, AZ: Fenestra Publishing, p. 12.

  13. 13.

    Hazzard, M (1984) Punishment Short of Death: A History of the Norfolk Island Penal Settlement. Melbourne: Hyland Publishing, p. 215.

  14. 14.

    Causer, T (2010) Norfolk Island Suicide Lotteries: Myth and Reality. London: Menzies Centre for Australian Studies, King’s College.

  15. 15.

    Ibid., p. 4.

  16. 16.

    Roscoe , K (2018) ‘A Natural Hulk: Australia’s Carceral Islands in the Colonial Period 1788–1901’. International Review of Social History, 63, Special Issue, 45–63.

  17. 17.

    For a full account of the Aboriginal convicts in New South Wales, the Cape Colony in South Africa and New Zealand, see Harman, Kristyn (2012) Aboriginal Convicts. UNSW Press. This publication provides a detailed account of how and why Aboriginal prisoners were treated in the British colonies. This is also explored further in the subsequent chapter on Wadjemup .

  18. 18.

    Reynolds , H (1998) Why Weren’t We Told? London: Penguin Books, p. 102.

  19. 19.

    Harman (2012) Aboriginal Convicts. Sydney: UNSW Press, p. 135.

  20. 20.

    An Act for the Prevention of Vagrancy and for the Punishment of Idle and Disorderly Rogues and Vagabonds and Incorrigible Rogues in the Colony of New South Wales (6 Geo. IV. No. 6) 25 August 1836 (repealed by 15 Vic. No. 4, 1851). Full text of Act: The Public General Statutes of New South Wales from 1 Victoriae to 10 Victoriae, Inclusive (1836–1846) (Sydney, Thomas Richards, Government Printer, 1861), p. 631.

  21. 21.

    Harman (2012) Aboriginal Convicts. Sydney: UNSW Press, p. 126.

  22. 22.

    Hill, F & Hill, R (1825–1902) What We Saw in Australia. London: Macmillan, p. 273.

  23. 23.

    Dukyer, E (1992) The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janzoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772. Hobart: St. David’s Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office.

  24. 24.

    Boyce, J in Perkins, R & Langton, M (2008) First Australians—An Illustrated History. Carlton: The Miegunyah Press, p. 73.

  25. 25.

    Ibid., p. 67.

  26. 26.

    Murray & Williamson (2003) ‘Archaeology and History’. In Manne, R (ed.) Whitewash: On Keith Windschuttle Fabrication of Aboriginal History. Melbourne: Black Inc Press, pp. 319–320.

  27. 27.

    Elder , B (2003) Blood on the Wattle: Massacres and Maltreatments of Aboriginal Australians Since 1788. Sydney: New Holland Press, p. 32.

  28. 28.

    Plomley (1987) Weep in Silence: A History of the Flinders Island Aboriginal Settlement. Hobart: Blubber Head Press, p. 608.

  29. 29.

    Walter, M & Daniels, L (2008) ‘Personalising the History Wars: Woretemoeteryenner’s Story’. International Journal of Critical Indigenous Studies, 1 (1), 37.

  30. 30.

    Plomley, NJB & Henley, KA (1990) The Sealers of Bass Strait and the Cape Barren Island Community. Hobart: Blubber Head Press.

  31. 31.

    For more data on the breakdown of Aboriginal island populations, see Australian Bureau of Statistics. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.NSF/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/65f1ae55ef772f18ca2570ec001117a4!OpenDocument.

  32. 32.

    Ryan (2007) in Langton, M & Perkins, R (eds.) (2008) First Australians—An Illustrated History. Carlton: The Miegunyah Press, p. 112.

  33. 33.

    Brand, I (1984) Port Arthur 1830–1877. West Moonah, TAS: Jason Publications.

  34. 34.

    For further reading Young, D (1996) Making Crime Pay. Hobart: THRA.

  35. 35.

    Parkhurst Children’s Prison would become a focus for British campaigners against the incarceration of children, in particular Mary Carpenter (1807–1877) who was a high profile social and educational reformer in Britain at the time.

  36. 36.

    Newman, T (2005) Becoming Tasmania: Renaming Van Dieman’s Land . Hobart: Parliament of Tasmania.

  37. 37.

    Barton, BF & Barton, MS (1993) ‘Modes of Power in Technical and Professional Visuals’. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 7 (1), 138–162, 139.

  38. 38.

    This is explored in more detail in the following chapter.

  39. 39.

    Semple, J (1993) Bentham’s Prison: A Study of the Panopticon Penitentiary. Oxford University Press.

  40. 40.

    The manuscript collected by Steele Rudd is housed at the University of Queensland. It can be viewed at http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:216890.

  41. 41.

    Richards, J (2008) ‘The Native Police of Queensland’. History Compass, 6 (4), 1024–1036, 1026.

  42. 42.

    Note that slavery did not become illegal until the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, whereas the slave trade was deemed illegal in 1807 in Britain.

  43. 43.

    For further information on the legislation and policies surrounding the issues of blackbirding and indentured labour, see Mortensen (2009) in the Journal of South Pacific Law, 13 (1). Accessible online at http://www.paclii.org/journals/fJSPL/vol04/7.shtml.

  44. 44.

    More information on the history and contemporary implications of blackbirding and the South Sea Islanders populations today can be sourced at http://www.datsima.qld.gov.au/resources/multicultural/community/australian-south-sea-islanders/history.pdf.

    Also publications such as Churchwards, WB (2009) Blackbirding in the South Pacific or, the First White Man on the Beach published by Amberg Press.

  45. 45.

    Stingemore, J & Myer, JF (2009) ‘Surviving the Cure: Life on Bernier and Dorre Islands Under the Lock Hospital Regime’. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 3 (12).

  46. 46.

    Jebb, MA (1984) ‘The Lock Hospital Experiments: Europeans, Aborigines and Venereal Disease’. In Reece, Bob & Stannage, Tom (eds.) European-Aboriginal Relations in Western Australian History, pp. 68–87.

  47. 47.

    Watson, EJ (1968) Rottnest: Its Tragedy and Its Glory. Perth: Watson DL, p. 54.

  48. 48.

    Stingemore, J (2002) Treponemal Diseases and the Isles of the Living Dead: An Investigation into ‘Syphilis’ in Australia and Its Effects of Indigenous Australians. Unpublished Honours Thesis, University of Western Australia.

  49. 49.

    Bates , D (1938) The Passing of Aborigines: A Lifetime Spent Among the Natives of Australia. Melbourne: Heinemann, p. 99.

  50. 50.

    The Shark Bay local government with the Department of Environment and Conservation (of Western Australia) provide a fact sheet on the history of the islands which can be viewed at http://www.sharkbay.org/assets/documents/fact%20sheets/history%20bernier%20and%20dorre%20v2.pdf.

  51. 51.

    Stingemore, J (2002) Treponemal Diseases and the Isles of the Living Dead: An Investigation into ‘Syphilis’ in Australia and Its Effects of Indigenous Australians. Unpublished Honours Thesis, University of Western Australia.

  52. 52.

    Bates , D (1938) The Passing of Aborigines: A Lifetime Spent Among the Natives of Australia. Melbourne: Heinemann, pp. 95–104.

  53. 53.

    Roscoe, K (2015) ‘Too Many Kill ‘em. Too Many Make ‘em Ill: The Commission into Rottnest Prison as the Context for Section 70’. Studies in Western Australian History, 30.

  54. 54.

    Moore, GF (1842) A Descriptive Vocabulary of the Language in Common Use Amongst the Natives of Western Australia. London: WS. Orr & Co., p. 8.

  55. 55.

    Nannup , Noel, interview with Author, 11 July 2012.

  56. 56.

    Dortch, C (2002) ‘Modelling Past Aboriginal Hunter-Gatherer Socio-economic and Territorial Organisation in Western Australia’s Lower South-West’. Archaeology in Oceania, 37 (1).

  57. 57.

    For further reading see: Heeres, JE (1899) The Part Borne by the Dutch in the Discovery of Australia 1606–1765. London: Royal Dutch Geographical Society, Section III.B.

  58. 58.

    Somerville, W (1976) Rottnest Island in History and Legend: Its Discovery and Development, Natural Beauties, Fauna and Flora. Perth : Rottnest Island Board, pp. 22–25.

  59. 59.

    Captain Samuel Volkerson’s reputation was called into question as a consequence of leaving the fourteen sailors on Wadjemup . Volkerson did not name Wadjemup after his ‘discovery’, which could have born his own name or that of the head steersman of the smaller boat, Leeman Van Santwigh. It is not noted why this did not occur other than to say it was left to the pleasure of the governor to name (Moran 2009: 11).

  60. 60.

    Nelson, CE (1994) ‘Nicolas Witsen’s Letter of 1698 to Martin Lister About a Dutch Expedition to the South Land (Western Australia): The Original Text and a Review of Its Significance for the History of Australian Natural History’. Archives of Natural History, 21 (2), 147–167.

  61. 61.

    Stannage, CT (1979) The People of Perth. Perth: Perth City Council, p. 7.

  62. 62.

    Elder , B (2003) Blood on the Wattle: Massacres and Maltreatments of Aboriginal Australians Since 1788. Sydney: New Holland Press, p. 271.

  63. 63.

    For further reading on this, see Douglas, H & Finnane, M (2012) Indigenous Crime and Settler Law: White Sovereignty After Empire. London: Palgrave Macmillan which ultimately claims that Indigenous people and settler Australians still live under the shadow of the empire and the residue of colonial law.

  64. 64.

    Perth Gazette, 29.01.1858.

  65. 65.

    Trigg, GGC/SRO, 11.02.1842.

  66. 66.

    Bates , D (1966) The Passing of the Aborigines: A Lifetime Spent Among the Natives of Australia. Melbourne: Heinemann, p. 11.

  67. 67.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 14.

  68. 68.

    Hutt, BPP, 15.05.1841.

  69. 69.

    Stannage, CT (1979) The People of Perth. Perth: Perth City Council, p. 7.

  70. 70.

    Battye, JS (1924) Western Australia: A History from Its Discovery to the Inauguration of the Commonwealth. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 122.

    James Sykes Battye (1871–1954) had a wing of the State Library of Western Australia named after him and his views on Aboriginal peoples of the colony, though well recorded, are little known.

  71. 71.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 7.

  72. 72.

    Ibid., pp. 17–31.

  73. 73.

    Bates , D (1966) The Passing of the Aborigines: A Lifetime Spent Among the Natives of Australia. Melbourne: Heinemann, p. 11.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., p. 44.

  75. 75.

    Kinnane in Langton, M & Perkins, R (eds.) (2008) First Australians—An Illustrated History. Carlton: The Miegunyah Press, p. 240.

  76. 76.

    Sydney Morning Herald, 25.01.1934.

  77. 77.

    Report of a Commission to Inquire into the Treatment of Aboriginal Native Prisoners of the Crown in This Colony (1884). Retrieved from http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/_files/archive/removeprotect/93007.pdf.

  78. 78.

    Ibid. (Appendix 3 transcribes all the prisoner statements provided in the commission).

  79. 79.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 64.

  80. 80.

    Ibid., pp. 100–332.

  81. 81.

    Of the five executions that took place between 1879 and 1888, all were sentenced to death for murder, of both white and Aboriginal peoples. From 1851, there were some twenty judicial hangings of Nyoongar people in the Swan River Colony . For further information refer to Harman, K (2012) Aboriginal Convicts. Sydney: UNSW Press as well as Douglas, H & Finnane, M (2012) Indigenous Crime and Settler Law: White Sovereignty After Empire. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

  82. 82.

    There is extensive writing done on this case. For further reading, see Noel Loos (2007), Bruce Elder (2003), and Neville Green (1995) The Forrest River Massacres. One of the original reportages can be viewed at http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/93651163.

  83. 83.

    See Auty, K (2004) ‘Patrick Bernard O’Leary and the Forrest River Massacres, Western Australia: Examining “Wodgil” and the Significance of 8 June 1926’. Aboriginal History, 28. Downloaded from http://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p171001/pdf/article06.pdf, 24.08.2018.

  84. 84.

    Atkinson, J (2013) ‘Trauma-Informed Services and Trauma-Specific Care for Indigenous Australian Children, Resource Sheet No. 21’. Closing the Gap Clearing House, p. 4.

  85. 85.

    The full report can be viewed at http://archive.aiatsis.gov.au/removeprotect/93044.pdf.

  86. 86.

    Royal Commission into Penal System of Colony (1899). Battye Library.

  87. 87.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 22.

  88. 88.

    Trigg, GG, 11.02.1842.

  89. 89.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 56.

  90. 90.

    Haebich (2000) Broken Circles, Fragmenting Indigenous Families 1800–2000. Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, p. 212.

  91. 91.

    Much has been written on this topic which encompasses research into the Stolen Generations (Haebich 2000), The Native Police (Richards 2008) colonialisation of the Kimberly (Pedersen in Schissel 2006) and the role of state-sanctioned institutions and children’s homes (Haebich 1992).

  92. 92.

    Haebich (2000) Broken Circles, Fragmenting Indigenous Families 1800–2000. Fremantle: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, p. 69.

  93. 93.

    Correspondence Bropho and Muir (2012), p. 2 provided to the author by Kado Muir.

  94. 94.

    This was Alan Bond’s signature company, which held 52% of Bond Corporation’s investments. A summary of its final demise as part of Alan Bond’s incarceration for Corporate Fraud can be read here http://www.smh.com.au/business/laid-to-rest-the-leaking-flagship-of-alan-bond-20090614-c7cd.html.

  95. 95.

    Native Title Tribunal (2006). Accessible http://www.msaj.com/Indian_Law_Cases/Bennell%20v%20State%20of%20Western%20Australia%20(2006)%20FCA%201243.pdf.

  96. 96.

    Green , N & Moon , S (1997) Far from Home: Aboriginal Prisoners of Rottnest Island 1838–1931. Dictionary of Western Australians, vol. X. Perth: University of Western Australia Press, p. 83.

  97. 97.

    Boochani, B (trans. Tofighian, O) (2018) No Friend but the Mountains: Writing from Manus Prison. Sydney: Pan Macmillan Australia.

  98. 98.

    Nethery, A (2009) ‘A Modern-Day “Concentration Camp”: Using History to Make Sense of Australian Immigration Detention Centres’. In Making and Debating Citizenship, Immigration and Refugee Policy in Australia and New Zealand. Canberra: ANU Press.

  99. 99.

    Kleist, O (2009) ‘Refugees Between Pasts and Politics: Sovereignty and Memory in the Tampa Crisis’. In Does History Matter: Making and Debating Citizenship, Immigration and Refugee Policy in Australia and New Zealand. Canberra: ANU Press.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., p. 93.

  101. 101.

    Australian Senate, Report of the Select Committee on a Certain Maritime Incident, 2002, 293. Available online at https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/senate/committee/maritime_incident_ctte/report/report.pdf. Accessed 28 August 2018.

  102. 102.

    http://www.dfat.gov.au/issues/rra-png.pdf. Accessed 3 December 2013.

  103. 103.

    Blackshield, T (2016) ‘PNG’s Supreme Court and Manus Island’. Australian Public Law Blog. http://www.law.unsw.edu.au/news/2016/05/png%E2%80%99s-supreme-court-and-manus-island. Accessed 28 August 2018.

  104. 104.

    http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3be01b964.pdf. Accessed 3 December 2013.

  105. 105.

    Ibid.

  106. 106.

    Johns, G & Davies, G (2104) ‘Coalitions of the Willing? International Backing and British Public Support for Military Action’. Journal of Peace Research, 51 (6), 767–781.

  107. 107.

    Fraenkl, J (2016) ‘Australia’s Detention Centres on Manus Island and Nauru: An End of Constructive Pacific Engagement?’ The Journal of Pacific History, 51 (3), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223344.2016.1233802.

  108. 108.

    McDaniel, C & Gowdy, J (2000) Paradise for Sale: A Parable of Nature. University of California Press.

  109. 109.

    http://unhcr.org.au/unhcr/images/2013-11-26%20Report%20of%20UNHCR%20Visit%20to%20Nauru%20of%207-9%20October%202013.pdf. Accessed 3 December 2013.

  110. 110.

    Maglen, K (2005) ‘A World Apart: Geography, Australian Quarantine, and the Mother Country’. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 60 (2), 196–217.

  111. 111.

    Nethery, A (2009) ‘A Modern-Day “Concentration Camp”: Using History to Make Sense of Australian Immigration Detention Centres’. In Making and Debating Citizenship, Immigration and Refugee Policy in Australia and New Zealand. Canberra: ANU Press, p. 73.

  112. 112.

    John Howard, CPD, Representatives, 29 August 2001, pp. 30, 517–518.

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  1. Culture, Media & Creative Industries, King’s College London, London, UK

    Kate McMillan

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McMillan, K. (2019). The Global South: Disappearing Beneath the Equator. In: Contemporary Art and Unforgetting in Colonial Landscapes. Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17290-9_3

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