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Coping with Risk, 1500–1914

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Farming Communities in the Western Alps, 1500–1914

Part of the book series: Historical Geography and Geosciences ((HIGEGE))

Abstract

This chapter looks at how farming communities in the western Alps coped with the weather-based disasters that beset farming, 1500–1914. These were not the only kind of disaster affecting such communities but they were the prime source of risk for them. Nor did such communities have a monopoly over the challenges posed by the risk of disasters. Their lowland counterparts also faced such challenges. However, with their greater extremes of topographic variation, mountain areas generally experienced more extremes of weather and possessed a greater potential for locally destructive flash flooding, avalanches, landslides, more prolonged snowfalls and more severe frosts. Such risks were accentuated by the greater variability of alpine climates, with less predictability and more damaging out-of-season events, such as snow and frost during critical phases of the growing season. This greater variability was a point well stressed by Pfister in his comparison of risk between the areas of the Hirtenland and Kornland in Switzerland, with the former having a 'high vulnerability to meteorological stress' compared to the latter. To this, we can add the fact that Alpine communities generally operated within tighter margins of subsistence so that the threshold at which risks could threaten was lower. They also faced greater difficulties in offsetting shortfalls of food via the market or other forms of redistribution. As my prime concern is to establish how farming communities experienced weather-based disasters, and coped with their impacts, commune-based archival evidence has been used to compile a database of such disasters during the period, 1500–1914. Discussion of this data is divided into four sections. The first reviews the problems of profiling weather-based disasters, both as regards their general structural form (i.e. sudden or slowly unfolding, simple or complex) and as regards their specific character or the type of weather reported to have contributed to them (i.e. hail, heavy rain, snow, frost, drought, etc). The second uses specific examples to explore how weather-based disasters impacted on traditional farm communities and how the latter perceived the causes of those events that were exceptional in their impact. The third examines how communities sought to minimise risk from such disasters. The fourth considers how traditional farm communities coped with their aftermath.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Shakespeare, Hamlet, Act IV, scene V.

  2. 2.

    Because the concentration here is on climate-based disasters, earthquakes are not discussed but the Alpine region is prone to them. The alpage of La Serein at Ayent, for example as well as other parts of Sierre, were affected by an earthquake recorded at 6.1 on the Richter scale in January 1946, with a major landslide of debris down the side of the Rawilhorn and across part of La Serein alpage being one of its lasting effects. A good summary of the problem, one that includes a listing of the more significant nineteenth-century earthquakes, is provided by Fäh et al., ‘Earthquake Catalogue of Switzerland (ECOS)’, 219–36. See also, the excellent reconstruction of the damage field associated with the Visp earthquake, 1855, in Fritsche et al., ‘Reconstructing the damage field of the 1855 earthquake in Switzerland’, 719–31.

  3. 3.

    Discussion of the damage caused locally by Wars and the passage of armies can be found in Vivier, Le Briançonnais Rural Aux XVIIIe et XIXe Siècles, 24; Pichard, ‘L’espace absorbé par l’économique? Endettement communautaire et pression sur l’environnement en Provence (1640–1730)’, 83. For a later reference to the exactions of war occurs in a reference to the Queyras in HA-G, Vallee du Queyras, serie E, 1781–1791, pp. 240–41.

  4. 4.

    Moratel, Dictionnaire Géographique et Statistique de la Suisse, for example has numerous references to environmental diasters across both vols. 1 and 2. See also, Bridel, Essai statistique sur le canton de Vallais, 22–5, 40–2, 44–5.

  5. 5.

    The pioneer in terms of Alpine environmental history has been Christian Pfister. Key early studies include Pfister, ‘Climate and Economy in Eighteenth-Century’, 223–243; Pfister, ‘An analysis of the Little Ice Age climate’; Pfister, ‘Changes in stability and carrying capacity of lowland and highland agro-systems in Switzerland in the historical past’, 291–7. See also, Mouthon, Champoléon 1448: Le Moyen Âge Au Risque de la Montagne which provides a detailed review of the multiple risks associated with Champoléon, pre-1500; Carrier, La Vie Montagnarde en Faucigny à la Fin du Moyen Âge, 166–7. A background review of Alpine risk generally is also provided by Lübken and Mauch, ‘Uncertain Environments: Natural Hazards, Risk and Insurance in Historical Perspective’, 1–12.

  6. 6.

    See for example, Baker, ‘Hail as Hazard: changing attitudes to crop protection against hail damage in France, 1815–1914’, 19–36.

  7. 7.

    Pfister, ‘Changes in stability and carrying capacity of lowland and highland agro-systems in Switzerland in the historical past’, 296.

  8. 8.

    See analysis by Crook, Siddle, Dearing, and Thompson, ‘Human Impact on the Environment in the Annecy Petit Lac Catchment, Haute-Savoie’, 267–8.

  9. 9.

    Pfister, ‘Climate extremes, Recurrent Crises and Witch Hunts’, 35. In fact, Pfister himself has done more research than anyone on the impact of specific Alpine disasters, see Pfister (ed.), Le jour d’après.

  10. 10.

    See Cook et al., ‘Old World Megadroughts and Pluvials during the Common Era’, 1–9, esp. p. 3.

  11. 11.

    Vivier, Le Briançonnais Rural Aux XVIIIe et XIXe Siècles,16.

  12. 12.

    Laternser and Pfister, ‘Avalanches in Switzerland, 1500–1990’, 261.

  13. 13.

    Swiss Alps maps. Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz 1895, ‘Distribution et fréquence de la grêle en Suisse, de 1883 à 1891’, map inset. See also, the modern map of hailstorms in Maueleshagen, ‘Sharing the Risk of Hail’, 173. The pattern and intensity of hail recorded in the latter is somewhat different in its detail from that in the Statistisches Jahrbuch … 1895.

  14. 14.

    See for example, Pfister, ‘Climate and Economy in Eighteenth-Century’, 223–243; Pfister, ‘Weeping in the Snow’, 31–86; Luterbacher et al., ‘The Late Maunder Minimum (1675–1715), 441–462.

  15. 15.

    Based on S-C, C707, ‘Relation Sur L’Etat de la récolte de la Province de Tarentaise dans L’année Courante 1758’.

  16. 16.

    Pfister, ‘Climatic Extremes, Recurrent Crises and Witch Hunts’, 35–7.

  17. 17.

    Pfister, 1981, ‘An analysis of the Little Ice Age climate in Switzerland and its consequences for agricultural production’, 214–48; Pfister, ‘Weeping in the Snow’, 31–86; Pfister, ‘Climate and Economy in Eighteenth-Century Switzerland’, 223–243.

  18. 18.

    Pfister, ‘Changes in stability and carrying capacity of lowland and highland agro-systems in Switzerland’, 291–7; Pfister, ‘An analysis of the Little Ice Age climate in Switerland and its consequences for agricultural production’, 237; Pfister, ‘Climate and Economy in Eighteenth-Century Switzerland’, 235.

  19. 19.

    Pfister, ‘Food supply in the Swiss Canton of Bern, 1850’, 291.

  20. 20.

    See HA-G, Serie E. Communauté de Ceillac, 1726–1781, 1756 and 1766., p.379; ibid., La Cluse en Dévoluy, 3E2934 ‘Récoltes (pertes 1627–1767)’, 1767; HA-G, Crevoux, 3 E 3245, Application, to ‘Monsigneur L’Intendant de la Province des Dauphiné’, for charity following a harvest failure caused by the greslée destroying their grains entirely in springtime, amongst other extreme events, s.d. but probably early eighteenth century; ibid., Gap, Vallouise, 3 E Art. 7485, ‘Procés verbal des pertes … dans La Commune de Vallouise… cinq messidor an dix’.

  21. 21.

    AHP-DLB, Moustier, E Dep135/79, ‘Verbal des dommages causés par l’orage de l’année 1717’.

  22. 22.

    See ibid., Serie M 7M037, ‘Etat indiquant par arrondissement et par commune le montant des pertes … par suite des inondations des 1 et 2 9bre 1843’ and ibid., ‘Etat de repartition …les inundations du 1 de 9bre 1844’. The former lists 59 communes as having suffered damage totalling 1,195,000 francs worth of damage.

  23. 23.

    I-G, Auris, 4E24/S_20, ‘Attestation d’une avalanche, 8 mai, 1720’.

  24. 24.

    AEV-S, D1 372 2, No. 2.

  25. 25.

    The damage appears to have been caused largely by its frosting effect, see HA-G, La-Cluse-en-Dévoluy, ‘La Cluse et Pasquiers … domage sde La Gresle et Gellée, 1729’.

  26. 26.

    HS-A, Leschaux, E Dépôt 4F/Art. 1, ‘Etat les pertes …par l’effet de la grêle, 27 juin, 1817’.

  27. 27.

    For example, I-G, Valbonnais 4E440/313, ‘Original…sur la perte arriveé aux Communautés des Valbonnais Entraigue et Valgoffrey par la grêlle et ravines, 1710’; ibid., Roissard, 4 E 570, damages, ‘les pluies et les grêles’, 1732–1754.

  28. 28.

    HA-G, Chorges 3E 5031, F4, ‘Etat …dommages souffert par les habitants de Chorges par l’effet de l’orage et de la grêlle, 26 juin, 1813’; ibid., Veynes 3E 7780 F4, ‘Procés Verbal de Verification, An 10, 8 prairal’, the ‘grands froids’ detailed in the report occurred during the 26th 27th and 28th of May; AEV-S, D1 31.4.1, ‘Secours aux victimes de la grêle au Nendes, Veyson, and Branois 1803 and 1807’ and, ibid., district of Monthey in 1816, 1833, 1838, 1839, 1841 and 1842; ibid., D1 31. 4.2, Canton of Lucerne—collection for victims of ‘la grêle’, 1885; I-G, Bernin, 4 E 181, 1632; HS-A, Peilloner, E Dépôt 1 i 14, Secours 1853–82; ibid., Saint-Sigismond, 6 F 4, 1856; I-G, Le Monestier du Percy, 4 E 62, calamities, inc. ‘estimation of dégâts’, 1677, 1757, 1789; ibid., Moretel de Mailles, 4 E 622, ‘Dégâts dus à la grêle’; ibid., Roissard, 4 E 570, 1792–3; ibid, Saint-Antoine, 4 E 378/167, ‘dégâts … grêle’, 1625–1774.

  29. 29.

    Examples of reports that distinguished between damage from hail and that caused by flooding elsewhere in the commune are provided by HA-G, Chorges, 3E 5031 F4, ‘Pertes de récoltes, Juillet, 1793’.

  30. 30.

    For example, AHP-DLB, Moustier, 1685, E Dépôt 135/79, Ms entitled ‘Sur le Requeste … l’année dernière 1684’; HA-G, Trescléoux, E Dépôt 27 HH2, Tempêtes, ‘Rapport et requête concernant les dégâts causés par les tempêtes, 1640–1646’.

  31. 31.

    See for example, I-G, Valbonnais 4E440/313, Grêle et pluie 1705–1709, 29th Juin, 1705.

  32. 32.

    HA-G, Théus, E Dépôt 8 HH1, 1753, ‘P.v. de dommage causés par les grands froids et le sécheresse, 1753’.

  33. 33.

    Ibid., ‘Estimation des dommages causés par le grêle et les innondations … Septembre, 1753’; ibid., ‘Procedure … pour la domage …14th–15th et 16th Septembre 1753’.

  34. 34.

    Ibid., La Cluse en Dévoluy, 3E2934, ‘Procès verbal du domage … 1767’.

  35. 35.

    Ibid., Orcières, 3 E art 3055, ‘Dommages causés aux récoltes,1788’. A similar mix of disaster sources across the year was reported at Ristollas in 1791, see ibid., Ristollas, 3 E art 6311 F1, ‘Etat Des Domage Causé a La Récolte des année derniere’.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., Vallouise, 3 E art 7485, ‘Pétition de la Municipalité de la Commune de Val., 1793’.

  37. 37.

    Ibid., Crevoux, 3 E 3245, Application to ‘Monsigneur L’Intendant de la Province des Dauphiné’ for charity following a harvest failure caused by a ‘tempest’ of frost, gresle and rain which left them in a state of ‘extreme misery’, with the greslée destroying their grains entirely in springtime and rain leading to floods, fosses and gullying in July, c.1719.

  38. 38.

    Favier, ‘La monarchie d’Ancien Régime et l’indemnisation des catastrophes naturelles’, 57–79, reviews the grants provided by the Dauphiné authorities for natural disasters as well as damage caused by armies from the early seventeenth century onwards.

  39. 39.

    AHP-DLB, Serie M, 7M037, sections xiv-xviii, covering orages and the resultant floods, 22nd and 23rd July, 1854. For a comparable example from Valais in 1834, see AEV-S, Nendaz, D1. 31. 4. 1, letter dated ‘24 Fevr. 1834’.

  40. 40.

    HA-G, Chorges, 3 E art 5031, 1813 and 1834, and Isère, Valbonnais 1761 1770 1761, 1764, 1770, 1778–9. See also, HA-G, D’Orcières, 3 E 3055, ‘Dommages causés aux récoltes, incendie, chasse aux loupes, 1733–1788’, esp. 1747, 1760, 1765 and 1788.

  41. 41.

    HA-G, La Cluse en Dévoluy, 3 E 2934, ‘Process verbal du domage et perte … la Cluse, 1767’.

  42. 42.

    AEV-S, F1. 31. 4. 1.

  43. 43.

    HS-A, Morzine, E Dépôt D13, ‘Sommaire Apprise Provisionnelle’ of losses suffered by ‘La parroisse de Morzine’, cites damage by large amounts of ‘gresle’ in combination with a great abundance of rain and flooding of the Drance and associated rivers, 21 Juin, 1715, see also MS entitled ‘Requêtes a La Chambre des Comptes… 1715’. Other examples of damage caused by gresle include I-G, Le Monestier du Percy, 4E62/117, ‘Procés verbal des dommages Causés par de Gresle Et Grosse pluye qui tomba dans le Courant de Juillet 1789 … . Communauté du Monetier du Percy’; ibid., La Cluze, 4E483/200, ‘Dégats dus à la grêle, 1729’ and ibid., ‘Dégats dus à la grêle, 1756’; HA-G, Crevoux, 3 E 3245, Application to ‘Monsigneur L’Intendant de la Province des Dauphiné’ for charity following a harvest failure caused by a ‘tempest’ of frost, gresle and rain which left them in a state of ‘extreme misery’, c.1720. Gresle, along with frost and extraordinary wind, was also a feature of the weather extremes that afflicted Monestier de Marc across May and June 1788.

  44. 44.

    HA-G, Crevoux, 3 E 3245, ‘Intendance … habitants de la Commune de Crevoux en Embrunois, 1765’. The orage occurred in 1764. The 1760s were particularly bad for damaging orage , see Favier, ‘La monarchie d’Ancien Régime et l’indemnisation des catastrophes naturelles’, 78.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., Serie E, Communauté de Ceillac, 1726–1781, p. 379

  46. 46.

    Ibid., D’Orcières, 3 E art 3055, ‘Dommage causés par la grêle, 1765’.

  47. 47.

    See also, I-G, Saint-Martin-De-La-Cluze, 4 E 483/200, ‘Dégats dus a la grêle’, 1729, 10th June. A damaging orage also occurred in Saint-Martin-De-La-Cluze in 1692, 1729, 1731 and 1756. See also, I-G, Monestier du Percy, 4E62/117, Calamities, grêle, ‘Estimation des Dégats’, 1677.

  48. 48.

    AEV-S, Mendaz, D1.31.4.1, Letter 24 Feb. 1834, which refers to orages across the summer of 1833 in communes of Collombay Mura, Conthus, Ardon, Chamoson and Nendaz; AHP-DLB, Beaujeu, E Dépôt 24/4, ‘Etat des fermes abandonées à la suite d’orages’, s.d, but thought to be the end of 18th century; AM-N, Roquebillière, E002/041 3F03, ‘Déclaration des Propriétaires endommagés par suite de l’orage du 14 août 1911’.

  49. 49.

    I-G, Chirens, 4 E 536/116, 1661 and 1774.

  50. 50.

    HA-G, Chorges, 3E 5031 F4, ‘Pertes de récoltes 1793–1846’.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., Gap, Crevoux, 1793, E Dépôt 43 F3, ‘Dommages causés aux récoltes par la grêle et le gelée 1793’.

  52. 52.

    AM-N, Roquebillière, E002/041 3F04, Letter from ‘Administration Centrale …14 novbre, an huit’, refers to considerable losses to the harvest caused by frost and hail during the previous year.

  53. 53.

    Other examples of damage caused by both hail and rain hail are provided by I-G, Auris, 4 E 24/S_20, ‘Attestation d’une chute de grêle, 1730’; AEV-S, D1.31.4.1, ‘Secours aux Victimes de la grêle, Mendaz, Seysonnez and Bramses, 1803’; AM-N, Roquebillière, E002/041 3F04, ‘Grêle, Procés-Verbal de vérification des Pertes, Dégats du 10 août, 1882’; I-G, Valbonnais, 4E 440/313, ‘Grêle et pluie, 1705–1709’; ibid., Le Monestier du Percy, 4E62/117, ‘Procés verbal des dommages Causés par de Gresle Et Grosse pluye qui tomba dans le Courant de juillet 1789 … . Communauté du Monestier-du-Percy’.

  54. 54.

    For example, AEV-S, D1 22 1.7, no. 8, ‘Innondations du Rhône à Val d’Illiez’, refers to a flash flood causing devastation along the Rhône valley in 1830.

  55. 55.

    I-G, 4 E 440/313, ‘grêle et tempete’, 1685. Other examples of an orage forming part of a tempest include that at Seyson in Valais, see AEV-S, D1. 34. 4. 1, Letter entitled ‘Au President et Grande Chatelain du Disain de Sion’, 1803.

  56. 56.

    AM-N, Roquebilliére, E002/041 3F04, ‘Résultat des repérations …dégats causés le 14 août derniere par un cyclone avec forte grêle’, 1911. See also, ibid., E026/025, august 14th, 1911; I-G, Villeneuve De Marc, 4E544/138, ‘Dégâts’, May 29th, 1705. In the case of the latter, hail was accompanied by an ‘extraordinaire pouffe par une tempete’, a phrase also used about the orage at ibid., St Martin De La Cluze, 4 E 483/200, ‘Dégats dus à la grêle, 10 juin, 1729’.

  57. 57.

    AHP-DLB, Moustier, E Dépôt 135/79, MS entitled ‘Sur le Requeste…l.année 1684’. The 1684 orage at Moustiers was wrapped up in a tempeste and led to extensive flooding, with the destruction of 11 houses listed as part of its damage.

  58. 58.

    Ibid., Reillane, E Dépôt 160/6 Art 2 no. 80, ‘Rapport sur le Dommage causé par l’orage du 21 7bre 1775’. As well as damaging crops, the orage left parts of Reillane’s farm land eroded and other parts covered with stones and gravel and damaged one of its irrigation canals.

  59. 59.

    I-G, Saint-André-la-Palud, 4E598/27, ‘Demande en Dégrêvement pr. Dommages causé par le Vent de 18. 9bre. 1791’. See also, HA-G, Trescléoux, E Dépôt 27 HH2, ‘Tempêtes rapport… conernant les dégâts causés par les tempêtes,1640–46’; ibid., Théus, E Dépôt 17 F6, ‘Estimation des dommages causés par le vent … Thèus, 1734’; I-G, St Martin de la Cluze, 4E 483/200, 1652 and 1657; ibid., Valbonnais, 4 E 440/313, 1685; AHP-DLB, Moustiers, E Dépôt 135/79, 1684/1685; AM-N, Belvédère, E102/034 DD32, ‘Dommage causé par tempeste, 26 août, 1748’; HS-A., E Dépôt 3F art 1, Villard-sur-Beöge, Letter entitled ‘Au Seigneur Intendant La Province du Faucigny’, 1822.

  60. 60.

    See for example, I-G, Auris, 4E24/S_20, ‘Attestation d’une chute de grêle, 1730’; AHP-DLB, E Dep 061/DD7; ibid., E Dep 024/14.

  61. 61.

    HA-G, Théus, E dépôt 8 HH1, ‘P.v. de dommage causés par les grands froids et le sécheresse, 1753’, notes in the margin refer to a damaging hailstorm on the 25 April.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., La Cluse en Dévoluy, 3 E 2934, ‘Proces verbal du domage … La Cluse, 1767’. The heavy fall of hail in springtime was only the start of the problems for the hamlet, for a drought and then an orage later in the year also affected output.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., Crevoux 3 E 3245, ‘Pertes aux récolts, 1764’. The damage was exacerbated by a heavy rainstorm later that month.

  64. 64.

    S-C, C618, Intendance Generale de Savoie, includes a report that speaks for the entire region when it refers to ‘un sac d’eau qui etait tombe du haut montagnes, avec une quantite de pierres cailous et sable’ destroying houses, roads and land.

  65. 65.

    The 1764 reports for Valbonnais explain its propensity for flooding in some detail, see I-G, 4E440/313, ‘Extract de la procedure verballe … le dommages souffert par la comte de Valbonnais, 1764’.

  66. 66.

    For example, HA-G, E Dépôt Art. 21, ‘Extrait du Registre … Département des Hautes-Alpes, six thermidor, an Deux’; AEV-S, Valais, D1 22 2.2, ‘Caisse de Secours, 1837’.

  67. 67.

    I-G, Valbonnais, 4E440/313, which forms a bundle of reports, including flood events, that occurred from the late seventeenth down to the late eighteenth century.

  68. 68.

    S-C, C607, ‘Instructions et Réponce aux articles demandès par Monsieur L’Intendant Vignet Baron des Etoles … 18 mars 1773’, contains responses by various communes relating to a number of questions, including a question on flood risk.

  69. 69.

    A good definition is provided by Ballesterors-Cánovas et al.: ‘Flash floods in mountain catchments are typically localized but highly variable hydrological processes characterized by a large water-sediment discharge in a short time period…’, see Ballesteros-Cánovas, Czajka, Janecka, Lempa, Kaczka and Stoffel, ‘Flash floods in the Tatra Mountain streams’, 639.

  70. 70.

    AEV-S, Granges, D1 22 1 7.

  71. 71.

    For example, I-G, Saint-Martin-de-Cluze, 4E 483/200, La Cluze et Paquier. ‘Verbal Sur les Domages …, par la Gelée …Les foudres D’Eau, 1776’; HA-G, Crevoux, 3E 3245, Untitled report on a ‘foudre d’eau’ falling at Crevoux, 1782; I-G, Le Monestier-du-Percy, 4E62/117, ‘Procès verbal des dommage causes par La Grelle et Grosse pluye qui tombe … juillet 1789’; ibid., Valbonnais, 4E440/313, ‘Extrait de la procedure verbale … Valbonnais’, 1764’. Judging from other reports for the eighteenth century, Valbonnais was familiar with the impact of ‘extraordinary’ amounts of rapid rain fed rapidly down its backing slopes.

  72. 72.

    The link between flash floods and mountain environments is made in the literature, see Rodriguez-Morata et al., ‘Regional reconstruction of the flash flood history in the Guadarrama range (central system, Spain)’, 406–7.

  73. 73.

    HA-G, Chorges, 3E 5031, ‘Contributions foncières de 1816’, provides a note on the storms that caused the flooding, and the damage suffered per landholder. Further flooding occurred at Chorges in 1835, ibid., June 22, 1835.

  74. 74.

    AHP-DLB, Thoram Haute, Serie M 7 M 037, ‘Valuation des dommages occasionnés par l’inondation 1 et 2 novembre 1843’.

  75. 75.

    HA-G, Inventaires Sommaires. Hautes-Alpes Series E, Tome II, ‘Archives de la Vallée du Queyras’, p. 240. The year 1730 saw a number of problems afflicting Queyras, as well as springtime frosts, including downpours that combined with snowmelt to cause flooding.

  76. 76.

    S-C, C607, ‘Instructions et Réponce aux articles demandès par Monsieur L’Intendant Vignet Baron des Etoles … 18 mars 1773’, response for Conflans.

  77. 77.

    Ibid., Affaires Communales, c707, no. 7, Untitled MS on damage caused by meltwater in Villete, 1792.

  78. 78.

    HA-G, Vallouise, E art 7485, ‘Petition des pertes causés par les Ravins dans la parroise des vignaux … 1791’.

  79. 79.

    An analysis of the major flood events in 1651 and 1859 that caused damage much further down the Isère, around Grenoble, can be found in Dumas, ‘The two memorable floods on the Isère in Grenoble (1651 and 1859), 39–49. The analysis concentrates on establishing flow rates.

  80. 80.

    S-C, C1419, ‘Relation sur les dégâts causés au Bourg et sur la territoire d’Aime, 1778’.

  81. 81.

    Details of the 1740 flood across Tarentaise and some of the damage caused along the Isère are provided in a 1756 report on Salines, see ibid., 30 August 1756. Another set of commune -based reports, from 1773, also refer back to the damage caused by the 1740 flood along the Isère, such as in that for Blaneise, which reported meadow land as destroyed or degraded, see ibid., C607, Blaneise, 18th March 1773.

  82. 82.

    Based on ibid., C.1419, ‘Les Chapelles et Montvelasan sur Belantre, 1778’. The full extent of damage across these communes is detailed in the report entitled ‘Etats des fonds emportés et déteriorés—la paraoisse des Chapelles en 1778’ and ibid., ‘Montvelasan’, 1778. Details of an earlier flood in Tarentaise are documented in ibid., C619, June 10–12th, 1764.

  83. 83.

    Ibid, C.1419, ‘Etat … de la paroisse des Chapelles et Montvelasan sur Belantre des dommages causé par l’Inondation…1778’.

  84. 84.

    Ibid., C1419, Aime, 1778, ‘Relation Sur les dégâts Causés au Bourg et sur le Territoire d’Aime par l’innondation arrivée La nuit du 25 8bre et Le Jour du 26… . 1778’.

  85. 85.

    AEV-S, D1 22 2.2. no. 2, ‘Rapport … President de la Commission de Bienfaisance, sur l’inondation arrivée au mois d’août 1834’. This provides the most detailed attempt to explain the unfolding of the event as a weather-based disaster.

  86. 86.

    AEV-S, D1 22 2.2, no. 139, Printed report ‘La Commission Centrale de Bienfaisancedu Canton du Valais issued by the Commission Centrale de Bienfaisance; aux Commissions des Dixains et Communes’, 1835.

  87. 87.

    Ibid.

  88. 88.

    Ibid., No. 2, ‘Rapport … Président de la Commission de Bienfaisance, sur l’inondation arrivée au mois d’août 1834’.

  89. 89.

    Ibid., No. 9.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., D1 22 2.2, No. 2, ‘Rapport … President de la Commission de Bienfaisance, sur l’inondation arrivée au mois d’août 1834’.

  91. 91.

    See for example, the letter from the commune of Granges regarding the longstanding problems it suffered from the flooding of the Rhône and what appears to have been changes made where it flowed through marshes on its floodplain, AEV-S, Letter from Granges commune, 13th May, 1830.

  92. 92.

    Baud and Reynard, ‘Géohistoire d’une trajectoire paysagère dans la plaine du Rhône valaisan’, 15–31; Baud, Reynard and Bussard, ‘Les transformations paysagères de la plaine du Rhône valaisan’, 225–58.

  93. 93.

    Pfister, ‘Changes in stability and carrying capacity of lowland and highland agro-systems in Switzerland in the historical past’, 292.

  94. 94.

    I-G, Valbonnais, 4E440/313, Report on gelée, 1698.

  95. 95.

    Ibid., 4 E 444/138, ‘Calamities agricoles Etat des degats 1670–1759’, dated May, 1705.

  96. 96.

    HA-G, Vallouise, 3 E Art. 7485 F2, ‘Proces verbal des perte … a cause le gelée, 27, 28 and 29 floreal and 16 and 17 messidor, an dix’; ibid., Serie E.—Communauté de Ceillac, 1726–1781, p. 379; ibid., Chorges, 3E 5031, ‘Etat approximatif du pertes … par la gelées’, May 25th–27th suggests 384 ha of land was left unsown owing to the heavy frost;. See also I-G, Clelles. 4E637/25, ‘Pertes dues au grand froid, 1683’; ibid., Villeneuve De Marc, 4E544/138, May 28th, 1705.

  97. 97.

    HA-G, Veynes, 3 E art 7780, ‘Proces Vebal de Verification, 8 prairial an 10’.

  98. 98.

    I-G, Saint-Martin-de-Cluze, 4 E 483/200, ‘Verbale sur les domages causes tant par la Gelée… par Les foudre d’eau’, 1776.

  99. 99.

    S-C, C863, ‘Registre’, Tignes, June, 26th–27th, 1754.

  100. 100.

    I-G, Valbonnais 4E440/313, ‘Verbal pour la comte de Valbonnais, 1757’. Reports details how prolonged snow mainly damaged winter grains. Valbonnais also lost its harvest through snow in 1698, 1735 and 1736, ibid., 4E440/313.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., Saint-Martin-de-la-Cluze, 4 E 483/200, ‘Dégâts dus à le sécheresse et gelée, 1753’; HA-G, Monêtier-les-Bains, 3 E 025, ‘Rapport pertes de récoltes, pour causé de gelées, juin, 1753’, mainly damage to the rye crop; I-G, Valbonnais 4E440/313, ‘Verbal pour la comte de Valbonnais, 1757’, reports Snow covering the harvest and lying on the ground till December, 1757.

  102. 102.

    HA-G, Ceillac, 1791–1798‘Accidents imprevus - Sinistres, - Incendies’, pp. 378–9.

  103. 103.

    Ibid., Gap, La-Cluse-en-Dévoluy, 3 E 2934, ‘Verbal de la pertes causé par la nege à mariame, 1749’. Other examples of summer frost or snow are available in I-G, Auris 4E24S/20, ‘Attestation d’une gele, juillet, 1723’; ibid., Chirens, 4 E 536/116, frost June 1661 and June, 1774; S-C, C619, Villard-de-Beaufort, June 15th; AEV-S, Mendaz, F1. 31. 4. 1, reports the crop at Collombay Mura being ‘ravaged’ by summer frost during 1833; Isère, Villeneuve de Marc, 4E544/138, 1660 and 4E544/138, mai 28th 1705.

  104. 104.

    HA-G, 3 E art 4556, 1698 which reports that the damage caused by snow and frost, followed by rain over summer meant that there was no barley or oats seed in the valley of Queyras for the following year.

  105. 105.

    I-G, Valbonnais 4E440/313, 1735 and 1736.

  106. 106.

    Grove, Little Ice Age , esp. 194–5.

  107. 107.

    Le Roy Ladurie, Times of Feast, Times of Famine, 143.

  108. 108.

    Ibid, 148, documents the example of meltwater from the Argentière glacier destroying houses and land at La Rosière in 1600 and 1610, with the glacier itself finishing off what was left of the settlement in 1613–14. Damage to houses, barns and land caused specifically by a flood of meltwater is also well documented by Pfister using the example of that which caused devastation at La Thuile in Aoste when a sudden surge of melt water was released from the Ruitor glacier above the settlement in 1594, followed by another in 1595, see Pfister, ‘Climate extremes, Recurrent Crises and Witch Hunts’, 58.

  109. 109.

    Le Roy Ladurie, Times of Feast, Times of Famine, 144–7, Plate XVIII and Fig 16; Grove, Little Ice Age, 114.

  110. 110.

    S-C, E Dépôt HH 5/3, ‘Benediction des glaciers de Chamonix, 1644’; ibid., E Dépôt HH 5/6, ‘Mon Seigneur le Reverendissme et Illustrissime … 1664.

  111. 111.

    For example, I-G, Le Freney, 184 E Dépôt 18 No. 44, ‘Copie de requette, La Freney en Maurienne’; AEV-S, D1 22 2.2. No 134. A useful discussion of the distinction between the different types of avalanches and landslips is provided by Allix, ‘Avalanches’, 359–423.

  112. 112.

    Laternser and Pfister, ‘Avalanches in Switzerland, 1500–1990’, 261.

  113. 113.

    Eg. ibid., 241–66; Schoeneich and Busset-Henchoz, ‘Risques naturels, espace vécu et représentations’, 249–70.

  114. 114.

    Ibid., 249–70.

  115. 115.

    I-G, Ornon, 4 E 33/144, ‘Dégâts dus à une avalanche, 1713’.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., Auris, 4E24/S_20, ‘Attestation d’une avalanche, 8 Mai, 1720.’

  117. 117.

    S-C, C1383, ‘Relation concernans les Forêts, 1753 and 1755’. Tessants was reportedly almost entirely destroyed by the avalanche, with wood cutting for the mines at Les Sallines seen as having raised the risk.

  118. 118.

    HA-G, Serie E—Communauté de Ceillac, 1726–81; ibid., Gap, Vallouise, ‘Procés verbal…le 24 avril, 1793’; HS-A 7 M art 133, 1867, Report of avalanche in Montriond.

  119. 119.

    S-C, C700, Village a la Coombe.

  120. 120.

    For example, AEV-S, D1 31.5; S-C, ‘Intendance Generale de Savoie, Cote C75, Commune d’Ayse’.

  121. 121.

    Laternser and Pfister, ‘Avalanches in Switzerland, 1500–1990’, 242.

  122. 122.

    Ibid., 257.

  123. 123.

    AEV-S, D1 372 2, no. 2.

  124. 124.

    Ibid., no. 3, ‘Tableau des dommages causes par les avalanches en 1888’; ibid., nos. 9 and 10, ‘Etat des domages causes par les avalanches dans les forêts en 1888’.

  125. 125.

    The most detailed description, written only 11 days after the event, is provided by ibid., D1, 31. 4.1, ‘Au Haut Conseil D’Etat du Canton du Valais, Sept 22nd, 1895’. See also ibid., D1. 31. 4, ‘Secours aux victimes de la catastrophe de l’Achels à Spitttelmatten, 11 Septembre 1895’; ibid., D1. 31. 5, ‘Secours aux victimes des éboulements, 1896’.

  126. 126.

    Ibid., D1, 31. 4.1, ‘Au Haut Conseil D’Etat du Canton du Valais, Sept 22nd, 1895’.

  127. 127.

    Ibid., Sion, D1. 22. 2.2, no. 2, ‘Rapport … Président de la Commission de Bienfaisance, sur l’inondation arrivee au mois d’aout 1834’. See also, ibid, no.134.

  128. 128.

    I-G, Auris, 1655, 4E24S 20, ‘Requête de consul et communauté d’Auris …en raison des éboulements suivant a la suite des pluies de 1651’. See also, S-C, Intendance Generale de Savoie, C618, which refers to ‘un sac d’eau qui etait tombe du haut montagnes, avec une quantite de pierres cailous et sable, droit comble plusiers maisons, rues et places de ladite paroisse, ruine les terres…’.

  129. 129.

    S-C, ‘Intendance Générale de Savoie’, Cote C75, 1777–8.

  130. 130.

    AM-N, Saorge, E048/198/13, 1 I 20. See also, HA-G, Ceillac , 1791–1798 ‘Accidents imprevus - Sinistres,—Incendies’, 1793, pp. 378–9.

  131. 131.

    HA-G, Montmaur, 3E/5729, ‘Proces verbaux d’expertise pour pertes 1791–93’.

  132. 132.

    Ibid., 3E/5729, Report on assessment of flood damage, dated 28th November, 1791.

  133. 133.

    Pfister, ‘Climate and Economy in Eighteenth-Century’, 235.

  134. 134.

    Based on Chambéry, C863, Registre, August 11th, 1758.

  135. 135.

    For example, I-G, Valbonnais, 4E440/313, 1761, Report titled ‘Extrait du Consul’ and date 1761. This 1761 disaster was a compounded affair, with drought in spring and heavy rains in June. The effect of drought on the hay crop and on the grazing of stock on ‘la grande montagne’ at Seyne is covered by AHP-DLB, E dep 205/1N7, ‘Extrait Du Registre … La Commune De Seyne’, 1844.

  136. 136.

    For example, I-G, Saint-Martin-de-la-Cluze, 4E483/200, 1752; HA-G, Théus, E Dépôt 8/H1, ‘P.v. de dommage causés par les grands froids et le sécheresse, 1753’; ibid., Serie E.—Communauté de Ceillac, 1726–1781, June, 1776; ibid., D’Orcières, 3E/3055, 1788; AHP-DLB, Seyne, E Dep 205/ 1N7, ‘Extrait Du Registre …La Commune De Seyne’, 1844.

  137. 137.

    Pfister, ‘Food supply in the Swiss Canton of Bern’, 292.

  138. 138.

    Mouthon, Champoleon 1448, 61–66. See also, Pfister, ‘Climatic Extremes, Recurrent Crises and Witch Hunts’ 60–6; Oberholzner, ‘From an Act of God to an Insurable Risk’, 133–52; Baker, ‘Hail as Hazard’, esp. 22–3.

  139. 139.

    Pfister, ‘An analysis of the Little Ice Age climate in Switzerland’, 214–48; Pfister, ‘Weeping in the Snow’, 31–86; Pfister and Brázdil, Social vulnerability to climate in the Little Ice .

  140. 140.

    Burns, ‘The ecological basis of French Alpine peasant communities in the Dauphiné’,19–35; Cole, and Wolf, The Hidden Frontier; Brush, ‘Introduction to the Symposium “cultural adaptations to mountain ecosystems”; Netting, ‘Of men and meadows’, 132–44; Netting, ‘Reflections on an Alpine village as ecosystem’, 225–35.

  141. 141.

    Garnet, A., ‘Insolation, topography and settlement in the Alps’, 601–17; Garnet, ‘Insolation and relief’, 1–71.

  142. 142.

    See, for example, Reichel and Frömming, ‘Participatory mapping of local disaster risk reduction knowledge’, 41–54.

  143. 143.

    Chambéry, C863 Registre, ‘Intendance de Tarentaise 1753–8’, for instance, repeatedly warns of the close relationship between the cutting of wood in the wrong place and the risk of avalanches and rockfalls. See also, ibid., C1405, ‘Intendance de Tarentaise, 1762–69’ and ibid., C707, no. 16, 1784.

  144. 144.

    S-C, La Freney, 184 EDépôt 18 No. 44, ‘Copie de requette, La-Freney-en-Maurienne’.

  145. 145.

    See, comments by Netting, Men and Meadows, 14–15, 21.

  146. 146.

    McNeil, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World, 105.

  147. 147.

    Netting, Balancing on an Alp, 1981, 21.

  148. 148.

    Ibid., 21.

  149. 149.

    Weinberg., ‘Cutting the pie in the Swiss Alps’, 125–31.

  150. 150.

    McGuire and Netting, ‘Leveling peasants?’, 281.

  151. 151.

    Weinberg, ‘Cutting the pie in the Swiss Alps’, 129.

  152. 152.

    McGuire and Netting, ‘Leveling peasants?’, 281.

  153. 153.

    Vivier, Le Briançonnais Rural Aux XVIIIe et XIXe Siècles, 32.

  154. 154.

    See, for example, uczaj et al., ‘Wild food plant use in 21st century Europe’, .

  155. 155.

    The extent to which local communities drew on situated knowledge about what wild foods could be eaten locally is shown by Mattalia, Quave and Pieroni, ‘Traditional uses of wild food and medicinal plants among Brigasc, Kyé and Provençal communities on the Western Italian Alps’, 587–603.

  156. 156.

    The terms grenier d’abondance and Monts de Piété are used as alternatives in a circular for the département of Hautes-Alpes, 2nd ventôse, an 13, see Gap, 3 E Art. 5031.

  157. 157.

    AHP-DLB, Montclar, E Dep 126/6, Grant to establish grenier d’abondance based on grain, 1829.

  158. 158.

    For example, AM-N, Belvédère, E102/034/DD32 ‘grenier de blé, 1599; AHP-DLB, Braux, E Dépôt 32/5, ‘Mont de piété’, including distributions of grain, 1694 and 1718; ibid., Saint Geniez, E Dépôt 179/GG10, ‘Assistance mont de piété 1630–1809’; ibid., Salignac, E Dépôt 200/63; ibid., Urbaye, E Dépôt 224/25, ‘grenier de resérve’; ibid., Barles, E Dépôt 020/GG1, ‘Registre de Mont de Piété, 1744–65’; HA-G, Tallard, E Dépôt 13 Q 15–16; ibid., Romette, 3 E 6433 F4.

  159. 159.

    For example, ibid., 3 E 5031, F7 and F8, Chorges, an 13.

  160. 160.

    Ibid., 3 E 5031, ‘Registre … grenier d’abondance …quantitié de blés … pendant l’anneé, 1827.

  161. 161.

    An example of such mutuality is provided by Collombey-Muraz. After the orage of 1834, collections were made in adjacent or nearby communes (Nendaz, Conthey, Chamoson and Ardon) to provide financial assistance, see AEV-S, D1 34.4.1, ‘District …Monthey, Pont valais, Collombey Illansay’, Letter dated ‘24 fevrier, 1834’ to ‘Monsieure le Conseiller d’Etat’. See also, Weinberg, Peasant Wisdom, 17.

  162. 162.

    Favier, ‘La monarchie d’Ancien Régime et l’indemnisation des catastrophes naturelles’, 57–79. A review of aid in Piedmont is provided by Vassallo, ‘La monarchie de la maison de Savoie face aux catastrophes naturelles’, 105–29. The house of Savoie took a close interest in floods and the damage which they caused, such as when floods caused catastrophic damage to valleys in Piedmont in 1728, but the provision of support for such events appears less organised.

  163. 163.

    I-G, Valbonnais, 4E440/313, Report titled ‘Extrait du Consul’ and date 1761; Ibid., 4E440/313, ‘Extract de la procedure verballe … le dommages souffert par la come de Valbonnais, 1764’.

  164. 164.

    AEV-S, D1. 31. 4. 1. No. 11, Letter ‘Au Conseil d’Etat du Canton du Valais … 1839’. Full details of the landholders affected (61 in Collombay Dessus, 19 in Collombay le Grand, and 54 in Muraz) are provided, in ibid., no. 9, ‘Etat des familles des Villages de Collombay et Muraz en perte par la Grêle du 16 juillet, 1839’.

  165. 165.

    Pfister, ‘Disasters, inter-regional solidarity and nation-building: reflections on the case of Switzerland, 1806–1914’, 117–141.

  166. 166.

    AEV-S, D1 22 2.2, ‘Project pour repartir les produits des collectes’ expands on the ethics of charity in these situations; see also ibid., no. 24 and 44.

  167. 167.

    Ibid., D1 22 2.2, no. 134.

  168. 168.

    Ibid., nos. 134 and 139.

  169. 169.

    See for example, AHP-DLB, 7M037, L’Ami de l’Ordre, 1854.

  170. 170.

    AEV-S, D1. 31. 4. 1.

  171. 171.

    See, for example, ibid, D1. 31. 4, which lists what was raised in Geneva, Bern and Sion.

  172. 172.

    The debate surrounding the establishment of the Caisse de Secours in the early 1830s outlined the different ways in which money or support could be raised, including through gifts of furniture that could be sold, see ibid., D1.22 2.2, Caisse de Secours, 1837.

  173. 173.

    See for example, Blanchard (ed.), Dictionnaire Geographique et Statistique de la Suisse par Marc Lutz, 304 and 449.

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    Robert Dodgshon

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Dodgshon, R. (2019). Coping with Risk, 1500–1914. In: Farming Communities in the Western Alps, 1500–1914. Historical Geography and Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16361-7_7

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