Abstract
For traditional Alpine farming, livestock had two sources of value. First, they were a resource that offered multiple resource benefits to farmers, being a source of food (cheese, butter, milk, meat), raw materials (wool, leather, hair, bone, horn and tallow), traction, carriage and, last but by no means least, a vital form of nutrient transfers in the form of manure. The animals themselves, as well as their produce or raw materials, could also be traded in markets, turned in to profit or exchanged to offset deficiencies in the household economy. Second, we need to understand the role played by livestock in binding together the distended resource mix of communes, with many communities having not just a considerable distance between what was their arable core and their alpages, but also, a considerable variation in height. Given the limited season of output from the alpage and its lower output compared to lowland pastures, and given the energy costs for the animals, herders, milkers and cheesemakers involved in reaching it, we need to be clear about what its wider benefits were. Arguably, its value rested on more than just the milk, cheese and butter produced over the season of alpation. As well as helping to maximise output from the resources available, it removed stock upwards away from arable over the summer growing season and enabled the growth of low ground meadows to be cut for the hay needed for stock feed over winter. The winter housing of stock produced the manure that could be spread over both arable and meadows in spring. Seen in these terms, livestock became the ties that bound lowland arable and the high alpage into a single system of husbandry and resource exploitation. The role of livestock in providing energy, subsistence and materials, together with their role in maximising the exploitation of the system's disparate resource sectors and in facilitating the vital transfer of nutrients from grass to arable provides us with a number of themes that can be grouped under three broad headings. First, I want to comment on the strategic role played by livestock in the structuring of the Alpine farm economy, how this role brought the resources of the higher ground into active play and how the transfer of nutrients from pasture and meadow land was essential for arable. Second, I want to explore stocking levels, both at the level of the commune and the individual farm unit, and how they changed over time. My initial discussion here will be organised around the 1500–1700 period, the eighteenth century and the nineteenth to early twentieth century. These phase-based discussions will be followed by short thematic reviews, one on seasonal stock listings, 1800–1914, and another on regional stock lists. In the third and final section, I want to review the changes that can be detected in the strategies of stock farming, 1500–1914.
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Notes
- 1.
Cole and Wolf, The Hidden Frontier, 128. Whilst there is a general truth in what Cole and Wolf say, we should also keep in mind a point made by Mathieu that where seasonal drought was an issue, farmers could spend more time dealing with the irrigation of their pastures than hay making, see History of the Alps 1500–1900, 58.
- 2.
Mathieu, History of the Alps 1500–1900, 52.
- 3.
Carrier, ‘L’estivage en Savoie du nord à la fin du Moyen Âge’, 199–200; Carrier and Mouthon, Paysans des Alpes, esp. vii and viii. Peasant communities in the southern Alps also gained access to the higher pastures but it was phased later, the shift starting in the fifteenth century, see Siddle, ‘Agrarian systems in the post medieval period’, 247.
- 4.
Head-Kőnig, ‘Les alpages en Suisse … (XVIe–début XIXe Siècle)’, 315–36.
- 5.
This difference between areas like Savoie and what happened in the Swiss Alps is well brought by Carrier, ‘L’estivage en Savoie du nord à la fin du Moyen Âge’, esp. 210.
- 6.
Morard, ‘L’élevage dans les Alpes fribourgeoises: des ovins aux bovins (1350–1550)’, 15–26.
- 7.
AEV-S, no. 183, Saint-Jean-d’Anniviers, 1627, février 24, Article 15. Netting cites a still earlier regulation for nearby Törbel, to the east of Anniviers, enacted or re-stated 1517, which also stated that no one was to send more cows to the alp than they could over winter, Netting, Balancing on an Alp, 61.
- 8.
HA-G, Savine, E Dépôt 9 N8, ‘Délibération du Conseil Municipal sur l’Administration des Pâturages Communaux, 1853’.
- 9.
Haute-Savoie, Saint-Sigismond, E Dépôt 3 F Art. 9, ‘Extrait du Procès-Verbal …règlement …pour l’enalpage et pâturage des Bestiaux sur les biens communaux’, 1793.
- 10.
An early reference to equal rights of access to the commons occurs in a discussion of rights at Montclar, Basses-Alpes. It refers back to an edict of 1667 which stated the principles of equal access to the commons and the importance of being able to maintain stock so as to fertilise their arable. See AHP-DLB, Montclar, E Dep. 126/6, series N 1 Art. 1, MS dated 19 juin, 1859 concerning ‘montagne pastorale’. See also, HA-G, Chorges, 3 E Art. 5047, ‘Délibération … l’administration des pâturages communaux, 1850’, with its declaration that, even in 1850, that each head of household had an equal right to the enjoyment of the pastures and, by reason of that equal right of enjoyment, a right to an equal share: ibid., la Cluse, 3 E Art. 2987, ‘Extrait du Registre des Actes de la Préfecture, 1854’.
- 11.
AHP-DLB, Moustiers, E Dep. 135/79, ‘Règlement pour les Bétail, 1696’; ibid., Montclar, E Dep. 126/6, ‘Extrait du Registre … la Commune de Montclar, 7 fevrier, 1841’; HA-G, O 14098, ‘Délibération … l’administration des paturages communaux, Névache, 1853’.
- 12.
Examples of stock levels being insufficient to sustain arable are provided by S-C, C607, ‘Les Mollettes, Sur la demande faite … 18 mars 1773’; ibid., Blaneise, ‘Sur la demande faite … 18 mars 1773’; ibid., Ste Heleine Dulac, ‘Sur la demande faite … 18 mars 1773’; ibid., Greisy, ‘Sur la demande faite … 18 mars 1773’. See also, AHP-DLB, Montclar, E Dep. 126/6, ‘Consulation pour la Communauté de Montclar au sujet … montagne, 1791’.
- 13.
VAAH-A, Fonds Ville, ROD5, ‘Rapport des Communes sur les Bois et Fôrets 1782–83’; Cole and Wolf, The Hidden Frontier, 121.
- 14.
VAAH-A, Fonds Ville, ROD5, ‘Rapport des Communes sur les Bois et Fôrets 1782–83’, esp. commune of Champ de Prés, Art. 7, p. 72. Other examples include ibid., Bourg d’VAAH-A, Articles 7 and 8, pp. 3 and 4; Allein, Art. 7, p. 19; Arnad, Art. 7, p. 25; Arvier, Art. 7, 34; Avise, Art. 7, p. 42; Bard, Art. 7, p. 46; Brissogne, Art. 55; Chambave and Riviere, Art. 7, p. 65; Cogne, Art. 7, p. 95; Gressan, Art. 8, p. 148; Lavale, Art. 8, 187; Notre Dames de Remas, Art. 8, 218; Nus, Art. 8, 227; Pont Saint-Martin, Art. 7, 244; Prés St. Didier, Art. 8, 254; Saint-Marcel, Art. 7, p. 299; Saint-Nicolas, Art. 7, p. 304; Saint-Pierre, Art. 7, pp. 324–5; Saint-Rhémy, Art. 7., p. 329; Saint-Victor-de-Challand, Art. 7, p. 336; SaintVincent, Art. 7, p. 341; Art. 7, p. 354; Valgriscenche, Art. 8, p. 354; Valtournenche, Art. 7, p. 365; Verrayes, Art. 7, p. 372; Verrès, Art. 7, p. 386; Villeneuve, arts. 7 and 8, pp. 396–7.
- 15.
Ibid., Commune of Champorcher and Comboset, Art. 7, p. 78; Hône, Art. 7, p. 153 and Perloz, Art. 7, pp. 234–5. The report for ibid., Donnas, Art. 7, p. 105, takes the same list and adds poplars to it, but others, simply note the use of oak and chestnut leaves, see, for example, Commune of Bard, Art. 7, p. 46.
- 16.
Ibid., Roisan, Art. 7, p. 267; Saint-Christope, Art. 7, 177.
- 17.
S-C, C607, Memoire de Foretier, Greisy, 1773. See also, Hubert, ‘Changing land uses in Provence’, 36.
- 18.
HA-G, Aspres-lès-Corps, 3 E Art. 4574, DD1, ‘À Nos seigneurs de Parlement … habitants de la paroisse de Saint Firmin, 1699’.
- 19.
Ibid., Bessans, 94 Edépôt 8, ‘Observations sur le Règlement de Bessans … trois mars mil Sept cent Septante deux’, Art. 20. See also Carrier and Mouthon, Paysans des Alpes, 251; Hubert, ‘Changing land uses in Provence’, 36; Lachaux, de Bonneval and Delabraze, ‘Pratiques anciennes et perspectives d’utilisation fourragère des arbres’, esp. 86–95. The latter provides a detailed review of leaf fodder usage in the southern Alps (France and Italy), as well as comments on the techniques used and range of trees exploited.
- 20.
http://www.sabaudia.org/3195-la-gabelle-du-sel-au-xviiie-siecle.htm provides an overview by Gachet in ‘La Gabelle du Sel au XVIIe Siécle’ and its collection over the second half of the eighteenth century in Savoie. See also, Gachet, Au coeur du XVIe siècle en Savoie: la gabelle du sel de 1561.
- 21.
For example, S-C, C608, ‘Recensement General de Population’, 1768. This same listing also contains what it lists as a ‘recensement des bestiaux’.
- 22.
Ibid., SA181917, Hauteluce, 1561, ‘Gabelle du Sel’; SA1926, Puygros, Thoiry, St. Jouie, 1561.
- 23.
Ibid., C1015, ‘Intendence de Tarentaise’, 1756.
- 24.
Ibid., C608, ‘Recensement Général de Population 1768’ inc. ‘recensement des bestiaux’. See also C1025, 1767.
- 25.
Ibid., C1033, ‘Gabelle du sel …consigne for la levée du sel, 1779’.
- 26.
The most comprehensive are HA-G, 0 Art. 14091 and ibid., Arrrondissement de Gap—‘Exercise 1857’.
- 27.
Économie Alpestre de la Suisse en 1864, Bern 1868. Use was also made of Statischische Jahrbuch der Schweiz, 1895; Statistiques Suisse des Culture en 1917.
- 28.
I-G, Ornon, 4E 33/79, Champerie, 1609–1653; ibid., 4 E33/80, Champerie, 1655–1699, ibid., 4E 33/81, Champerie, 1701–1788.
- 29.
HA-G, 3 E Art. 7892, ‘Recensement des Bestiaux, 1835–1882’.
- 30.
AM-N, Péone, E008/083 2L4, ‘Rôles des Revenus Communaux, 1815–59’ and E008/084 2L 8, 1861–1889.
- 31.
Ibid., Roquebillière, E002/015, CC64, CC65 and CC066, ‘Rôles du Bétail, 1735–1889’.
- 32.
HS-A, Villard-sur-Boëge, E Dépôt 2L 3, ‘Rôle du Bétail, 1817–1865’.
- 33.
Ibid., Les Houches, E Dépôt 2L 4, ‘Rôles de L’Octroi sur le Bétail, 1826–40’.
- 34.
For examples of how charges varied between types of stock, and between stock that had been wintered and those brought in from outside for the alpage, see HA-G, Villar-d’Arêne, 3 E Art. 7892, ‘Recensement pour l’année 1864’. Some were priced according to whether they were small, average or large animals. This was a feature of listings for communes in the Alpes-Maritimes, see AM-N, Roquebillière, E002/015, ‘Role du Bétail 1686–1732 … Consina di Bestima anno 1686’; ibid., Roquebillière, E002/016 CC 066, ‘Consegna 1789’; I-G, Valbonnais, 4E621/131, ‘Etat et dénombrement des Bestiaux … 1742’ (gros and menu); AHP-DLB, Seyne, E DEP 205/1N7, ‘Registre, l’usage introduire du gros et menu bétail dans les pâturage communaux, 1831’.
- 35.
Examples are provided by HA-G, Villar-d’Arêne, 3 E Art. 7892, ‘Recensement Des Bestiaux hyvernes… 1836’; ibid., Montoyer, E Dépôt Art. 16, ‘Redevances sur les Pâturages Communaux, 1837’.
- 36.
For a transcribed summary of the data for the Tarentaise and Vanoise, see S-C, Cédérom 4 Num 66, Tarentaise et Vanoise, based on SA2087, Dénombrement pour le gabelle du sel Province de Tarentaise 1561. Included on this cédérom are valuable comments on the 1561 listing by André Plassiard, who supervised the transcription of the listing. These comments include clarification of the categories of stock used.
- 37.
Viallet, Les Alpages et la Vie d’une Communauté Montagnarde: Beaufort du Moyen Âge au XVIIIe Siècle, 31.
- 38.
Based S-C, CD 9 Num 66, based on SA 2087. See, for example, S-C, SA1926, ‘Gabelle du sel 1561’, parishes of Puygros, Thoiry et Saint-Jeoire, which notes a number of families as ‘poor’ with no stock of any sort. 8 were classed as poor in Longefoy, 16 in Macôt and 18 in Montgirod, see ibid., Chambéry, CD 4 number 22.
- 39.
Based on ibid., CD 4 Num. 22, SA 1897, ‘Tabelle de 1561, pour le Canton d’Aime’.
- 40.
This data was based on ibid., Chambéry, SA1926.
- 41.
This point is made by Plassiard, ibid., S-C, Cédérom 4 Num 22.
- 42.
Mouthon, ‘L’inventaire du bétail dans une communauté alpine à la fin du xive siècle’, 12.
- 43.
In his guidance on the Gabelle de Sel data, Plassiard defines stock estrange as those that did not belong to a hearth who were brought in for summer, whilst ayverne stock were those who likewise did not belong to anyone within the commune but were brought in to be fed during winter, S-C. Cedérom 3 Num 66.
- 44.
See, for example, ibid., 11–12.
- 45.
I-G, Ornon, 4 E33/80, ‘Champerie, 1655–1699’, list for 1691.
- 46.
Ibid., 4E33/81, Champerie, 1701–1788, list for 1760. Like other listings, the 1760 listing refers specifically to the levy raised on cows and sheep, but some of the other listings do mention other stock.
- 47.
Ibid., 4E33/80, ‘Champerie, 1655–1699’, list for 1691.
- 48.
For discussion of the temporary improvement of climatic conditions between the end of a severe phase of the Little Ice Age, 1580–1630, and the down turn into another severe phase between the 1680s and early 1700s, see Pfister, ‘Weeping in the snow’, 55 and 57.
- 49.
S-C, C1033, ‘Gabelle du sel …la levée du sel’, 1779; ibid., C608, ‘Recensement General de Population’ 1768 inc. ‘recensement des bestiaux’; HS-A, E Dépôt CC18; C434, Cederom 2 Num 175, ‘Dénombrement de la Gabelle du sel’, 1756–1758; ibid., ‘Récapitulation du dénombrement’ 1756–1758, ibid., ‘Dénombrement de la Gabelle du Sel’, 1776. The latter provides copies of the summary data for each district.
- 50.
The 1561 listings record the total of sheep and goats separately, but those for 1756–8 combine them into a single figure so that any comparison has to be on the basis of combining 1561 data for sheep and goats.
- 51.
S-C, C1018 ‘Intendance de Tarentaise’, 1759.
- 52.
Ibid., C015, ‘Intendance de Tarentaise …Consigne des Bourg St. Maurice pour 1756’.
- 53.
Ibid., ‘Consigne des St. Foy pour 1756’.
- 54.
Ibid., ‘Consigne des Villargerel pour 1756’.
- 55.
Ibid., Consigne des Villargerel pour 1756.
- 56.
Ibid., ‘Consigne des St. Foy pour 1756’.
- 57.
Based on data from S-C, C1033, ‘Intendance de Tarentaise 1779’.
- 58.
AM-N, Roquebillière, E OO2/015 CC 063, ‘Rôle du bétail’, 1711, 1724, 1726; ibid., E 002/016, CC 064, Rôle du bétail, 1735, 1749, 1757; ibid., E 002/016 CC 065, ‘Rôle du bétail, 1768’; ibid., E 002/016 CC 066, ‘Rôle du bétail’, 1778, 1780, 1789.
- 59.
AM-N, Roquebillière, E002/015 CC063, ‘Rôles du Bétail, 1686–1726’; ibid., E002/016 CC 064, ‘Rôles du Bétail 1735–1757’; ibid., E002/016 CC 066, ‘Rôles du Bétail 1778–1789’.
- 60.
Ibid., Péone, E 008/ 0017, ‘Habitants et bétail, 1731’; ibid., ‘Habitants et bétail, 1789’; ibid., E 008/ 083 2L1, ‘Des rôles des revenus communaux et Bétail, 1795’; ibid., E008/083 2L1, ‘Rôles du Bétail 1793–1808’.
- 61.
Data based on HS-A, Les Houches, E Depot Houches 2 L at 4, Rôle de la Consigne Pour la Commune des Houches en 1843–96.
- 62.
Based on AM-N, Péone, E008/083 2L4, ‘Des rôles des revenus communaux et du bétail, 1815–1859’; ibid. E008/083 2L1, ‘Bétail …1808’; ibid., E008/084 2L8, ‘Bétail … 1861–1890’.
- 63.
Hubert, ‘Changing land uses in Provence’, 35 provides a graph covering both the Basses-Alpes and the Alpes-Maritimes which shows a steep decline in progress by the 1880s and continuing down across the twentieth century to the 1970s.
- 64.
Those that do include the fifteenth century Queyras list discussed by Mouthon in his ‘L’inventaire du bétail dans une communauté alpine à la fin du XIVe siècle’, 91–120 and Viallet, in her discussion of stocking at Beaufort, Les Alpages et la Vie d’une Communauté Montagnarde, 57–8.
- 65.
The listings include HA-G, Villar-d’Arêne, 3 E Art. 7892, ‘Recensement Des Bestiaux hyvernes… 1836’, but subsequent pages label it as ‘Hyverner et Étrangères’; Ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux hivernés dans la commune en 1853’; ibid., ‘Recensement pour l’annee, 1854’; Ibid., ‘Recensement pour l’année 1864’; ibid., ‘Etat du Recensement des Bestiaux … Villar-d’Arêne, 30 Janvier, 1875’; ibid., ‘Recensement d’Hiver, 1876’; ibid., ‘Recensement des bestiaux de la Montagne de L’Alp fait 18 Juillet 1876’; ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux … Villar-d’Arêne fait Le Février 1878’; ibid., ‘Etat ouvert …déclaration du Habitants qui veulent user de Leur Droit aux pâturages communaux, 1882’.
- 66.
Altogether, listings were sampled for 1835, 1836, 1838, 1853, 1854, 1855, 1863, 1864, 1867, 1871, 1875, 1876, 1878, 1881, 1882, 1884.
- 67.
Ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux hyverner … Ainsi qui des bestiaux Étrangèrs pour la confection du rôle 1836’.
- 68.
Ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux hivernés dans la commune en 1853’.
- 69.
Ibid., ‘Recensement pour l’année 1864’.
- 70.
Ibid., ‘Tableau de Recensement des Bestieaux hyverner, 1836’.
- 71.
Ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux hyverner dans la Commune ainsi qui des bestiaux Étrangèrs pour la confection du rôle 1836’.
- 72.
HS-A, Villard-sur-Boëge, 2 L Art. 3, ‘Rôle du Bétail qui a paturé sur les fonds communaux, 1825’.
- 73.
Source: HA-G, 3 E Art. 7892, Gap, ‘Recensement des Bestiaux hivernes … 1836’; ibid., ‘Recensement du Betail pour 1853’; ibid., ‘Recensement pour L’annee 1864’; ibid., ‘Recensement 1871’; ibid., ‘Recensement des Bestiaux, 1882’.
- 74.
I-G, Valbonnais, 4E621/132, ‘Note pour dresser le Rôle declare sur les Bestiaux, en 1845’.
- 75.
Ibid., 4E621/132, ‘Liste du recensement des bestiaux, 1861’.
- 76.
I-G, Valbonnais, 4E621/131, ‘Recensement des chèvres et chevreaux de la commune de Valbonnais 22 Mai 1837’. See also, ibid., ‘Etat des Bestiaux Gardér dans les pâturages communaux, en 1834’.
- 77.
HA-G, O Art. 14091, ‘Etat Comparatif des bêtes ovines … rôles de paturage des années 1859, 1863 et 1883’.
- 78.
Statistique de la Suisse. Économie Alpestre de la Suisse en 1864, 1868.
- 79.
Statistik der Vichbesitzer in der Schweiz am 21. April 1866. Statistique des Propriétaires de Bétail en Suisse au 21 Avril 1866, Bern, 1870.
- 80.
Recensement du Bétail de la Suisse, 1886.
- 81.
Based on Statistique de la Suisse. Économie Alpestre de la Suisse en 1864.
- 82.
Orland, ‘Alpine Milk’, esp. 351.
- 83.
Based on Statistisches Jahrbuch der Schweiz.. Annuaire Statistique de la Suisse, 1894; Statistique Suisse des Culture en 1917.
- 84.
The elaborate system of stock movements that developed over the late medieval period are reviewed in Carrier and Mouthon. Paysan des Alpes, 257–97.
- 85.
Vivier, Le Briançonnais Rural Aux XVIIIe et XIXe Siècles, 64.
- 86.
One response in the 1773 report suggests that the selling of surplus calves was to save on winter feed, but it also saved milk for other uses. For the selling of its calves at 8–9 days old so as to free up milk, see S-C, C607, Sainte-Hélène-du-Lac, ‘Sur la demande …lettre circulaire du 18 mars 1773’.
- 87.
Ibid., C607, Report 23, ‘Memoire de M. Forettier’, relating to Grésy-sur-Aix, Trèvignin, Voglans and Viviers-du-Lac.
- 88.
Ibid., Chambéry, C863, ‘Registre, Relation sur le Commerce et la Culture des Terres dans le Province de Tarentaise’, p. 156 et seq.
- 89.
Ibid., Chambéry, C607, no. 21, ‘Notre-Dame-des-Millières, Relation Instructive pour Monsieur Vignet Baron des Étoles …1773’.
- 90.
Ibid., C607, no. 28, ‘Saint-Hélène-des-Millières … 1773’.
- 91.
Orland, ‘Alpine Milk: Dairy Farming as a Pre-modern Strategy of Land Use’, 327–64.
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Dodgshon, R. (2019). The Ties that Bind: Livestock Farming in the Western Alps, 1500–1914. In: Farming Communities in the Western Alps, 1500–1914. Historical Geography and Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16361-7_4
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