Abstract
Present in both everyday life and festive rituals, saints—both officially canonized and unofficially venerated—provide a prime example of lived religion in early modern Catholicism. To early modern Catholics, religious experience was a dynamic interaction between believers, God and the saints. In this chapter, we argue that the study of lived religion, understood as individual and communal participation in religious rituals, performances and other practices, allows us to gain new insights into the experiences and expressions of early modern religiosity, without lapsing into simplifying dichotomies or essentialist interpretations of the past. Rather, the concept of lived religion helps us link individual or communal experience to a larger societal framework. Considering the dramatic rise in hagiographic material in the wake of the Catholic Reformation and its reinforcement of the cult of saints, and supported by the invention of the printing press, we further propose that hagiographic material is ideally suited for the study of lived religious experience both on an individual and communal level. By hagiography, we refer to a multitude of material related to saints’ cults and canonisations, such as vitae (or saints’ lives), spiritual biographies, miracle narratives, canonisation processes, iconography, and drama. It is outright perplexing, how little use early modern scholars have, in comparison to medievalists, hitherto made of this abundant genre. Taking into account the changes and continuities in canonization procedures and their interaction with hagiographic material, the chapter introduces a sample of case studies from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century that illustrate how the veneration of saints helped early modern Catholics to give meaning and shape to their various mundane and religious experiences.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
The concept of ‘saint’ can be used to denote a person considered to be holy, as well as a canonised saint. The problem lies in the Latin word sanctus, which can be an adjective or a noun. Over time, the differentiation between sanctus/sancta and beatus/beata became more established, and many witnesses in the seventeenth-century canonisation proceedings systematically used the word when referring to a holy person not yet officially canonised. For further discussion, see Finucane (2011, 3–4) and Wetzstein (2004, 211, 289).
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
- 6.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
Studies of some individual saints’ cults have also been abundant, revealing the potential these sources have, especially when other types of documents have been sparsely preserved. This has been demonstrated particularly in studies concerning the cult and the fourteenth-century canonisation inquiry of St Francesca Romana. See Esch (1973), Esposito (1996), and the articles in Bartolomei Romagnoli (2009).
- 10.
One important exception to this is the work done by Jodi Bilinkoff on Saint Teresa (see Bilinkoff 1989). Generally speaking, the concept of ‘Renaissance’ is problematic for the study of social history, especially for northern Europe. Similarly, the beginning of the early modern period is dated differently in different geographical areas. Research on the social and cultural history of northern Europe has been undertaken based on hagiographic texts produced in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries; however, it is usually considered as part of medieval studies. See, e.g., Katajala-Peltomaa (2016), Kuuliala (2016b), Maniura (2004), Park (1994), Smoller (1997, 1998), and Van Mulder (2015).
- 11.
Bilinkoff (2005).
- 12.
- 13.
Ditchfield (1995, 1; 2009, 559–60). The reorganisation of the Catholic Church in the early modern period has traditionally been described as the Counter-Reformation. Some scholars have objected to this term, claiming that it reduces the process to a mere reaction to the Protestant Reformation despite the fact that certain developments had taken root already in the late Middle Ages. Alternative terms used in Anglophone scholarship include the Catholic Reformation, the refashioning of the Catholic faith or Church, the Catholic revival or renewal, and early modern Catholicism. French scholars often employ the term renaissance catholique or la Réforme catholique, whereas historians in German-speaking areas generally use the terms katholische Reform or katholische Reformation, as opposed to the older Gegenreformation. See, e.g., Bireley (1999), O’Malley (2000), and Delumeau (2010). Nevertheless, in this volume we have chosen to use a variety of terms synonymously according to the preference of the authors of the articles.
- 14.
- 15.
Finucane (2011, 2).
- 16.
Pellegrini (2018, 107).
- 17.
Finucane (2011).
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- 19.
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Copeland (2016, 9–10).
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- 22.
One such group of people considered to be holy although not necessarily officially canonised are the post-Tridentine Catholic martyrs. See Gregory (2001, 252–53, 297).
- 23.
Burke (2005, 51).
- 24.
See Ronald J. Morgan’s article in this volume for further discussion.
- 25.
- 26.
For instance, St Kateri (Catherine) Tekakwitha (d. 1680), a young woman of Indian descent converted by Jesuits in New France, was identified as holy already by her contemporaries, both by the Jesuits instructing her in Christianity and by the circle of female proselytes around her. Father Claude Cauchetière and Father Pierre Cholenec each recorded their version of Kateri’s story and the miraculous healing of her own smallpox-inflicted body immediately after her death. She was soon venerated as a saint, although her official canonisation did not occur until as late as 2012. Greer (2004).
- 27.
See Jenni Kuuliala’s article in this volume, p. 265–292.
- 28.
Bilinkoff (2005, 4–5).
- 29.
Burke (2005); The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent 25, 218–20; Acta Sanctorum .
- 30.
See, e.g., Bilinkoff (2005).
- 31.
- 32.
Le Brun (2013, 8–15).
- 33.
- 34.
See the article by Tomasz Wiślicz in this volume on Marian apparitions in early modern Poland.
- 35.
E.g. Goodich (2007, 8–28).
- 36.
- 37.
See Duffin (2009) and Jenni Kuuliala’s article in this volume for further discussion. This development became even more notorious in the eighteenth century, when Prospero Lambertini (later Pope Benedict XIV; 1740–1758) acted as the promotor fidei and greatly influenced the interplay of medical science and the investigation of the miraculous. Messbarger (2016) and Pomata (2016). See also Touber (2014) for science and the cult of saints.
- 38.
- 39.
Thomas C. Devaney discusses this in his article in this volume.
- 40.
See the articles by Karen McCluskey, Jenni Kuuliala, Thomas C. Devaney, Andreea Marculescu, and Ronald J. Morgan for miracles of various types.
- 41.
One of the explanations for this phenomenon is that there was a shift in the forms of veneration in the late Middle Ages. While a pilgrimage had previously been needed to obtain a miracle, the use of vota and portable relics became more common from the fourteenth century onwards. This would naturally have made it easier to ask for saintly help in acute situations, or at least to get the help recorded. See Krötzl (2000, 561–66) and Vauchez (1988, 549–50).
- 42.
Duffin (2009, 89, 93).
- 43.
For example, the testimony of one nobleman in the canonisation hearing of Philip Neri records the holy man curing the family’s beloved pet sparrow. Il Primo processo, vol. II, 115–16.
- 44.
Gentilcore (1998, 195). For example, the flourishing cult of the miracle-working image of Madonna della Quercia in Viterbo is reported to have started in 1461, when a knight escaping his enemies became invisible and evaded danger thanks to the painting. The collection, which extends to the seventeenth century, also includes a great variety of miracles, ranging from traditional cures and rescues to tempests, fires, and imprisonments. Corona ammirabile de miracoli e gratie fatte dalla gran signora madre di Dio, 1–2, passim.
- 45.
See Fletcher (2016, 25–26).
- 46.
Sangalli (1993, 118).
- 47.
- 48.
Hills (2016).
- 49.
Ditchfield (1995, 237–38).
- 50.
For visual culture and Carlo Borromeo’s cult, see Turchini (1984, 40–44).
- 51.
- 52.
See Thomas C. Devaney’s article in this volume for the shrines in Spain.
- 53.
See Diana Bullen Presciutti’s article in this volume. See also Jacobs (2013) for votive panels as a source for everyday life and veneration.
- 54.
Bibliography
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The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent. Trans. and Intro. H. J. Schroeder. Charlotte: Tan Books, 2011.
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Kuuliala, J., Peake, RM., Räisänen-Schröder, P. (2019). Introduction: Hagiography and Lived Religion. In: Kuuliala, J., Peake, RM., Räisänen-Schröder, P. (eds) Lived Religion and Everyday Life in Early Modern Hagiographic Material. Palgrave Studies in the History of Experience. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15553-7_1
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