Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (and Gender) in Psychosis But Were Afraid to Ask: A Narrative Review

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Psychopathology in Women

Abstract

In Chap. 6 I argue for a sex- and gender-based analysis (SGBA) to improve the science of psychosis research, describing how to conduct SGBA. I extend that argument in this chapter by reviewing what we currently know about sex and gender in psychosis highlighting gaps in our knowledge illustrating how SGBA might fill those gaps. I discuss several ways this can be achieved, such as through clarifying research findings and/or enhancing methodology demonstrating the potential for increasing our understanding of the development, expression, and recovery of psychotic experiences.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Pineles SL, Borba CPC. A path towards effectively investigating the impact of sex and gender on mental health. Clinical psychology review. 2018. Clin Psychol Rev. 2018;66:1–2. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2018.11.004.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Mendrek A. Sex and gender differences in mental health research. In: Cohen S, Banister E, editors. What a difference sex and gender make: a gender, sex and health research casebook. Ottawa: Institute of Gender and Health of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Abel KM, Drake R, Goldstein JM. Sex differences in schizophrenia. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2010;22(5):417–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Falkenburg J, Tracy DK. Sex and schizophrenia: a review of gender differences. Psychosis Psychol Soc Integr Approach. 2012;6(1):61–9.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Kulkarni J, Gavrilidis E. Psychosis in women: Gender differences in presentation, onset, course and outcome of schizophrenia. Women and Health. 2nd ed; 2013. p. 1283–91.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Leung A, Chue P. Sex differences in schizophrenia, a review of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;101:3–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. McGrath J, Saha S, Chant D, Welham J. Schizophrenia: a concise overview of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Epidemiol Rev. 2008;30:67–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Riecher-Rössler A, Hafner H. Gender aspects in schizophrenia: bridging the border between social and biological psychiatry. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000;102:58–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Seeman MV. Gender. In: Clinical handbook of schizophrenia. Mueser, KT & Jeste DVNew York: Guilford; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Riecher-Rössler A. Oestrogens, prolactin, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, and schizophrenic psychoses. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30379-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Riecher-Rössler A, Butler S, Kulkarni J. Sex and gender differences in schizophrenic psychoses—a critical review. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2018;21(6):627–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Morgan V, Castle DJ, Jablensky AV. Do women express and experience psychosis differently from men? Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008;42:74–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Iacono WG, Beiser M. Are males more likely than females to develop schizophrenia? Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:1070–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Iacono WG, Beiser M. Where are the women in first-episode studies of schizophrenia? Schizophr Bull. 1992b;18:471–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. McGrath JJ, Susser ES. New directions in the epidemiology of schizophrenia. Med J Aust. 2009;190(4):S7–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Thorup A, Waltoft BL, Pedersen CB, Mortense PB, Nordentoft M. Young males have a higher risk of developing schizophrenia: a Danish register study. Psychol Med. 2007;37:479–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Wahl OF, Hunter J. Are gender effects being neglected in schizophrenia research? Schizophrenia Bull. 1992;18(2):313–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Lewine RR. Sex: an imperfect marker of gender. Schizophr Bull. 1994;20(4):777–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Castle DJ, Wessley S, Murray RM. Sex and schizophrenia: effects of diagnostic stringency, and associations with premorbid variables. Br J Psychiatry. 1993;162:658–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Aleman A, Kahn RS, Selten JP. Sex differences in the risk of schizophrenia: evidence from meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003;60:565–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Saha S, Chant D, Welham J, McGrath J. A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. Public Library Sci Med. 2005;2:e141.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Perala J, Suvisaari J, Saarni SI, Kuoppasalmi K, et al. Lifetime prevalence of psychotic and bipolar I disorders in a general population. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64(1):19–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Longenecker J, Genderson J, Dickinson D, Malley J, Elvevag B, Wein-berger DR, et al. Where have all the women gone?: participant gender in epidemiological and non-epidemiological research of schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2010;119(1–3):240–5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Chang WC, Tang JY, Hui CL, Chiu CP, Lam MM, Wong GH, Chung DW, Law CW, Tso S, Chan KP, Hung SF, Chen EY. Gender differences in patients presenting with first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong: a three-year follow up study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2011;45:199–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Nasser EH, Walders N, Jenkins JH. The experience of schizophrenia: What’s gender got to do with it? A critical review of the current status of research on schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bull. 2002;28(2):351–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Riecher-Rössler A, Pflüger M, Borgwardt S. Schizophrenia in women. In: Kohen D, editor. Oxford textbook of women and mental health. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2010. p. 102–14.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Schön U. Recovery from severe mental illness, a gender perspective. Scand J Caring Sci. 2010;24(3):557–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kirkbride JB, Errazuriz A, Croudace TJ, et al. Incidence of schizophrenia and other psychoses in England, 1950–2009: a systematic review and meta-analyses. PLoS One. 2012;7:e31660.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Andia AM, Zisook S, Heaton RK, Hesselink J, Jernigan T, Kuck J, et al. Gender differences in schizophrenia. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995;183:522–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Maric N, Krabbendam L, Vollebergh W, de Graaf R, van Os J. Sex differences in symptoms of psychosis in a non-selected, general population sample. Schizophr Res. 2003;63(1–2):89–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. McGlashan TH, Bardenstein KK. Gender differences in affective, schizoaffective, and schizophrenic disorders. Schizophr Bull. 1990;16:319–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Verdoux H, van Os J, Maurice-Tison S, Gay B, Salamon R, Bourgeois M. Increased occurrence of depression in psychosis-prone subjects: a follow-up study in primary care settings. Compr Psychiatry. 1999;40:462–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Garety P, Kuipers E, Fowler D, et al. A cognitive model of the positive symptoms of psychosis. Psychol Med. 2001;31:189–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. van Os J, Verdoux H, Maurice Tison S, Gay B, Liraud F, Salamon R, Bourgeois M. Self-reported psychosis-like symptoms and the continuum of psychosis. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1999;34:459–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cotton S, Lambert M, Schimmelmann BG, Foley DL, Morley KI, McGorry PD, Conus P. Gender differences in premorbid, entry, treatment, and outcome characteristics in a treated epidemiological sample of 661 patients with first episode psychosis. Schizophr Res. 2009;114:17–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Al-Issa I. Gender and schizophrenia. In: Al-Issa I, editor. Gender and psychopathology. New York: Academic; 1982. p. 153–77.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  37. Lucas CJ, Sainsbury P, Collins JG. A social and clinical study of delusions in schizophrenia. J Ment Soc. 1962;108:747–58.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Mirowsky J, Ross CE. Paranoia and the Structure of Powerlessness. Am Sociol Rev. 1983;48:228–39.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Thorup A, Petersen L, Jeppesen P, Ohlenschlæger J, Christensen T, Krarup G, Jorgensen P, Nordentoft M. Gender differences in young adults with first-episode schizophrenia spectrum disorders at baseline in the Danish OPUS study. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2007;195:396–405.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Ochoa S, Usall J, Cobo J, Labad X, Kulkarni J. Gender differences in schizophrenia and first-episode psychosis: a comprehensive literature review. Schizophr Res Treatment. 2012;2012:916198.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Grossman LS, Harrow M, Rosen C, Faull R, Strauss GP. Sex differences in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders: a 20-year longitudinal study of psychosis and recovery. Compr Psychiatry. 2008;49(6):523–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Allan JA, Hafner JR. Sex differences in the phenomenology of schizophrenic disorder. Can J Psychiatr. 1989;34:46–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Hollander MH, Callahan AS. Erotomania and DerClerambault’s syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1975;32:1574–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Modlin H. Psychodynamics and management of paranoid states in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1963;8:262–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Raskin DE, Sullivan KE. Erotomania. Am J Psychiatry. 1974;131:1033–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Rudden M, Sweeney J, Frances A, Gilmore M. A comparison of delusional disorders in women and men. Am J Psychiatry. 1983;140(12):1575–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Seeman MV. Schizophrenic men and women require different treatment programs. J Psychiatr Treat Eval. 1983;5:143–8.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Goldstein JM. The impact of gender on understanding the epidemiology of schizophrenia. In: Seeman MV, editor. Gender and psychopathology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Sherman M, Sherman IC. Psychotic symptoms and social backgrounds. In: Bentley M, Cowdry EV, editors. The problem of mental disorder: a study undertaken by the Committee on Psychiatric Investigations National Research Council 1934. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Ltd. p. 339–45.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Yap PM. Mental diseases peculiar to certain cultures: a survey of comparative psychiatry. Br J Psychiatry. 1951;97:313–27.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Suhail K. Phenomenology of delusions in Pakistani patients: effect of gender and social class. Psychopathology. 2003;36(4):195–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. LaTorre RA. The psychological assessment of gender identity and gender role in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 1976;2(2):266–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Reed MR. The masculinity-femininity dimension in normal and psychotic subjects. J Abnorm Soc Psychol. 1957;55(3):289–94.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Levant RF. Research in the psychology of men and masculinity using the gender role strain paradigm as a framework. Am Psychol. 2011;66(8):765–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. O'Neil J, Summarizing M. 25 years of research on men's gender role conflict using the gender role conflict scale—new research paradigms and clinical implications. [Review]. Counsel Psychologist. 2008;36(3):358–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Pleck JH. The myth of masculinity. Cambridge, MIT Press; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Pleck JH. The gender role strain paradigm: an update. In: Levant RF, Pollack WS, editors. A new psychology of men. New York: Basic Books; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Root MPP. Rethinking racial identity development: an ecological framework. In: Spickard P, Burroughs J, editors. We are a people: narrative in the construction and deconstruction of ethnic identity. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Weinstein EA. Cultural aspects of delusion: a psychiatric study of the Virgin Islands. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, Inc; 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Tolman DL, Impett EA, Tracy AJ, Michael A. Looking good, sounding good: femininity ideology and adolescent girls’ mental health. Psychol Women Q. 2006;30(1):85–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M, Lieverse R, Lataster T, Viechtbauer W, et al. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull. 2012;38(4):661–71.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Sajatovic M, Jenkins J, Strauss M, Butt Z, Carpenter E. Gender identity among men and women with schizophrenia. Psychiatr Serv. 2005;56(1):96–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Johnson JL, Greaves L, Repta R. Better science with sex and gender: a primer for health research. Vancouver: Women’s Health Research Network; 2007. p. 557–64.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Barrett AE, White HR. Trajectories of gender role orientations in adolescence and early adulthood: a prospective study of the mental health effects of masculinity and femininity. J Health Soc Behav. 2002;43:451–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Whitely BE. Sex-role orientation and psychological wellbeing: two meta-analyses. Sex Roles. 1984;12:207–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. World Health Organization. Gender in mental health research report 2004. Geneva: Author. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241592532.pdf?ua=1. Accessed 29 Mar 2011.

  67. Haarmans M, McKenzie K, Kidd S, Bentall RP. Gender role strain, core schemas and psychotic experiences in ethnically diverse women: a role for sex- and gender-based analysis in psychosis research? Clin Psychol Psychother. 2018;25:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.2307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Arieti S. An overview of schizophrenia from a predominately psychological approach. Am J Psychiatr. 1974;131:241–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Sarada Menon M, Cornelio N, Saraswathy K. Delusions—a study in sex differences. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 1980;26:93–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Klaf FS, Davis CA. Homosexuality and paranoid schizophrenia: a survey of 150 cases and controls. Am J Psychiatry. 1960;116:1070–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Kinderman P, Read J, Moncrieff J, Bentall RP. Drop the language of disorder. Evid Based Ment Health. 2013;16:2–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Benedict PK, Jacks I. Psychiatry. 1954;17:377.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Walston F, David AS, Charlton BG. Sex differences in the content of persecutory delusions: a reflection of hostile threats in the ancestral environment? Evol Hum Behav. 1998;19:257–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Segal JH. Erotomania revisited: from Kraepelin to DSM-III-R. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146(10):1261–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Klaf FS. Female homosexuality and paranoid schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1961;1:84–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Galdos P, van Os J. Gender, psychopathology, and development: from puberty to early adulthood. Schizophrenia Res. 1995;14:l05–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Gecici O, et al. Phenomenology of delusions and hallucinations in patients with schizophrenia. Bull Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;20:204–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Legg L, Gilbert P. A pilot study of gender of voice and gender of voice hearer in psychotic voice hearers. Psychol Psychother Theory Res Pract. 2006;79:517–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Musalek M, Berner P, Katschnig H. Delusional theme, sex and age. Psychopathology. 1989;22(5):260–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Kala AK, Wig NN. Delusion across cultures. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 1982;28(3):185–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. El-Assra A. Erotomania in a Saudi woman. Br J Psychiatry. 1989;155:553–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Kazamias NG. Sex difference in the incidence of grandiose delusions in paranoid patients in Greece. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 1970;16(3):228–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gutiérrez-Lobos B, Schmid-Siegel B, Bankier B, Walter H. Delusions in first-admitted patients: gender, themes and diagnoses. Psychopathology. 2001;34:1–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Kelly B, Erotomania D. Epidemiology and management. CNS Drugs. 2005;19(8):657–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Yamada N, Nakajima S, Noguchi T. Age at onset of delusional disorder is dependent on the delusional theme. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1998;97:122–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Reiff M, Castille DM, Muenzenmaier K, Link B. Childhood abuse and the content of adult psychotic symptoms. Psychol Trauma Theory Res Pract Policy. 2012;4(4):356–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Rhodes JE, Jakes S. Correspondence between delusions and personal goals: a qualitative analysis. Br J Med Psychol. 2000;73:211–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Nayani TH, David AS. The auditory hallucination: a phenomenological survey. Psychol Med. 1996;26(01):177–89.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Haarmans M, Vass V, Bentall RP. Voices’ use of gender, race, and other social categories to undermine female voice-hearers: implications for incorporating intersectionality within CBT for psychosis. Psychosis Psychol Soc Integr Approaches. 2016;8(3):203–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2015.1131323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Mitropoulos GB, Gorgoli D, Houlis D, Korompili K, Lagiou C, Gerontas A. Psychosis and societal prescriptions of gender: a study of 174 inpatients. Psychosis Psychol Soc Integr Approaches. 2015;7:324. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2015.1020333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  91. Leaper C. The social construction and socialization of gender during development. In: Miller PH, Kofsky-Scholmick E, editors. Toward a feminist developmental psychology. Florence, KY: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.; 2000. p. 127–52.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Bebbington PE, Jonas S, Kuipers E, King M, Cooper C, Brugha T, Meltzer H, Mcmanus S, Jenkins R. Sexual abuse and psychosis: data from an English National survey. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199:29–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Fisher H, Morgan C, Dazzan P, Craig T, Morgan K, Hutchinson G, Jones PB, Doody GA, Pariente C, McGuffin P, Murray RM, Leff J, Fearon P. Gender differences in the association between childhood abuse and psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2009;194:319–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Beck JC, van der Kolk B. Reports of childhood incest and current behavior of chronically hospitalized psychotic women. Am J Psychiatr. 1987;144:1474–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Hardy A, Fowler D, Freeman D, Smith B, Steel C, Evans J, et al. Trauma and hallucinatory experience in psychosis. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2005;193:501–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Rudman LA, Glick P. The social psychology of gender: how power and intimacy shape gender relations. New York: The Guilford Press.; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Williams JE, Satterwhite RC, Best DL. Pancultural gender stereotypes revisited: the five factor model. Sex Roles. 1999;40(7/8):513–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Eagly AH, Wood W. The origins of sex differences in human behaviour: evolved dispositions versus social roles. Am Psychol. 1999;54(6):408–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. World Health Organization. (undated). Gender and women’s mental health. http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/genderwomen/en/. Accessed 29 Mar 2011.

  100. Birchwood M, Gilbert P, Gilbert J, Trower P, Meaden A, Hay J, et al. Interpersonal and role-related schema influence the relationship with the dominant ‘voice’ in schizophrenia: a comparison of three models. Psychol Med. 2004;34(8):1571–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Birchwood M, Meaden A, Trower P, Gilbert J, Plainstow J. The power and omnipotence of voices and significant others. Psychol Med. 2000;30(2):337–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Hayward M, Berry K, Ashton A. Applying interpersonal theories to the understanding of and therapy for auditory hallucinations: a review of the literature and directions for further research. Clin Psychol Rev. 2011;31(8):1313–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Birrell PJ, Freyd JJ. Betrayal trauma: relational models of harm and healing. J Trauma Pract. 2006;5(1):49–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Brown LS. Feminist therapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Boyle M. Schizophrenia: a scientific delusion? 2nd ed. London: Routledge; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Kaschak E. Engendered lives: a new psychology of women’s experience. New York: Basic Books; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Jenkins JH. Schizophrenia as a paradigm case for understanding fundamental human processes. Cambridge Stud Med Anthropol. 2004;11:29–61.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Sells DJ, Staynor DL, Davidson L. Recovering the self in schizophrenia: an integrative review of qualitative studies. Psychiatry Q. 2004;75(1):87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Ratner PA, Sawatzky RG. Approaches to the measurement of gender. In: Oliffe JL, Greaves L, editors. Designing and conducting gender, sex, & health research. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc; 2012. p. 65–84.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  110. Read J, Bentall RP, Fosse R. Time to abandon the Bio-Bio-bio model of psychosis: exploring the epigenetic and psychological mechanisms by which adverse life events lead to psychotic symptoms. Epidemiol Psychiatr Soc. 2009;18(4):299–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cathie Marsh Institute, Centre on Dynamics of Ethnicity, Sociology, School of Social Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

    Maria Haarmans

Authors
  1. Maria Haarmans
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Maria Haarmans .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Cruces University Hospital, University of the Basque Country, Barakaldo, Vizcaya, Spain

    Margarita Sáenz-Herrero

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Haarmans, M. (2019). Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (and Gender) in Psychosis But Were Afraid to Ask: A Narrative Review. In: Sáenz-Herrero, M. (eds) Psychopathology in Women. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15179-9_18

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15179-9_18

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-15178-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-15179-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation