Abstract
Microalgae are important natural resources that can provide food, medicine, energy and various bioproducts for nutraceutical, cosmeceutical and aquaculture industries. Their production rates are superior compared to those of terrestrial crops. However, microalgae biomass production on a large scale is still a challenging problem in terms of economic and ecological viability. Microalgal cultivation system should be designed to maximize production with the least cost. Energy efficient approaches of using light, dynamic mixing to maximize use of carbon dioxide (CO2) and nutrients and selection of highly productive species are the main considerations in designing an efficient photobioreactor. In general, optimized culture conditions and biological responses are the two overarching attributes to be considered for photobioreactor design strategies. Thus, fundamental aspects of microalgae growth, such as availability of suitable light, CO2 and nutrients to each growing cell, suitable environmental parameters (including temperature and pH) and efficient removal of oxygen which otherwise would negatively impact the algal growth, should be integrated into the photobioreactor design and function. Innovations should be strategized to fully exploit the wastewaters, flue-gas, waves or solar energy to drive large outdoor microalgae cultivation systems. Cultured species should be carefully selected to match the most suitable growth parameters in different reactor systems. Factors that would decrease production such as photoinhibition, self-shading and phosphate flocculation should be nullified using appropriate technical approaches such as flashing light innovation, selective light spectrum, light-CO2 synergy and mixing dynamics. Use of predictive mathematical modelling and adoption of new technologies in novel photobioreactor design will not only increase the photosynthetic and growth rates but will also enhance the quality of microalgae composition. Optimizing the use of natural resources and industrial wastes that would otherwise harm the environment should be given emphasis in strategizing the photobioreactor mass production. To date, more research and innovation are needed since scalability and economics of microalgae cultivation using photobioreactors remain the challenges to be overcome for large-scale microalgae production.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abu-Ghosh S, Fixler D, Dubinsky Z, Iluz D (2016) Flashing light in microalgae biotechnology. Bioresour Tech 203:357–363
Acién Fernández FG, Fernández Sevilla JM, Sánchez Pérez JA, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2001) Airlift-driven external-loop tubular photobioreactors for outdoor production of microalgae: assessment of design and performance. Chem Eng Sci 56(8):2721–2732
Adenan NS, Yusoff FM, Medipally SR, Shariff M (2016) Enhancement of lipid production in two marine microalgae under different levels of nitrogen and phosphorus deficiency. J Environ Biol 37:669–676
Al Ketife AMD, Judd S, Znad H (2016) A mathematical model for carbon fixation and nutrient removal by an algal photobioreactor. Chem Eng Sci 153:354–362
Alishahi M, Karamifar M, Mesbah M (2015) Effects of astaxanthin and Dunaliella salina on skin carotenoids, growth performance and immune response of Astronotus ocellatus. Aquac Int 23(5):1239–1248
Aly N, Tarai RK, Kale PG, Paramasivan B (2017) Modelling the effect of photoinhibition on microalgal production potential in fixed and trackable photobioreactors in Odisha. India Curr Sci 113(2):272–283
Angeles IP, Chien Y-H, Tayamen MM (2009) Effects of different dosages of astaxanthin on giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) challenged with Lactococcus garvieae. Aquac Res 41(1):70–77
Arashiro LT, Montero N, Ferrer I, Acien FG, Gomez C, Garfi M (2018) Life cycle assessment of high rate algal ponds for wastewater treatment and resource recovery. Sci Total Environ 622–623:1118–1130
Arora N, Patel A, Pruthi PA, Poluri KM, Pruthi V (2018) Utilization of stagnant non-potable pond water for cultivating oleaginous microalga Chlorella minutissima for biodiesel production. Renew Energ 126:30–37
Atta M, Idris A, Bukhari A, Wahidin S (2013) Intensity of blue LED light: a potential stimulus for biomass and lipid content in fresh water microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresour Tech 148:373–378
Becker EW (1984) Biotechnology and exploitation of the green alga Scenedesmus obliquus in India. Biomass 4(1):1–19
Becker EW, Venkataraman LV (1984) Production and utilization of the blue-green alga Spirulina in India. Biomass 4(2):105–125
Begum H, Yusoff FM, Banerjee S, Khatoon H, Shariff M (2016) Availability and utilization of pigments from microalgae. Crit Rev Food Sci 56(13):2209–2222
Blanken W, Cuaresma M, Wijffels RH, Janssen M (2013) Cultivation of microalgae on artificial light comes at a cost. Algal Res 2(4):333–340
Burgess G, Fernández-Velasco JG (2007) Materials, operational energy inputs, and net energy ratio for photobiological hydrogen production. Int J Hydrogen Energ 32(9):1225–1234
Cao W, Wang X, Sun S, Hu C, Zhao Y (2017) Simultaneously upgrading biogas and purifying biogas slurry using cocultivation of Chlorella vulgaris and three different fungi under various mixed light wavelength and photoperiods. Bioresour Tech 241:701–709
Carlozzi P (2000) Hydrodynamic aspects and Arthrospira growth in two outdoor tubular undulating row photobioreactors. Appl Microbiol Biot 54(1):14–22
Carlozzi P (2003) Dilution of solar radiation through “culture” lamination in photobioreactor rows facing south–north: a way to improve the efficiency of light utilization by cyanobacteria (Arthrospira platensis). Biotechnol Bioeng 81(3):305–315
Chang HX, Fu Q, Huang Y, Xia A, Liao Q, Zgu X, Zheng YP, Sun CH (2016) An annular photobioreactor with ion-exchange-membrane for non-touch microalgae cultivation with wastewater. Bioresour Tech 219:668–676
Cheah WY, Show PL, Chang J-S, Ling TC, Juan JC (2015) Biosequestration of atmospheric CO2 and flue gas-containing CO2 by microalgae. Bioresour Tech 184:190–201
Chen BF, Yang HK, Wu CH, Lee TC, Chen B (2018) Numerical study of mixing in microalgae-farming tanks with baffles. Ocean Eng 161:168–186
Cheng-Wu Z, Zmora O, Kopel R, Richmond A (2001) An industrial-size flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. (Eustigmatophyceae). Aquaculture 195(1):35–49
Chini Zittelli G, Lavista F, Bastianini A, Rodolfi L, Vincenzini M, Tredici MR (1999) Production of eicosapentaenoic acid by Nannochloropsis sp. cultures in outdoor tubular photobioreactors. J Biotechnol 70(1):299–312
Chini Zittelli G, Rodolfi L, Biondi N, Tredici MR (2006) Productivity and photosynthetic efficiency of outdoor cultures of Tetraselmis suecica in annular columns. Aquaculture 261(3):932–943
Chinnasamy S, Bhatnagar A, Claxton R, Das KC (2010) Biomass and bioenergy production potential of microalgae consortium in open and closed bioreactors using untreated carpet industry effluent as growth medium. Bioresour Tech 101(17):6751–6760
Chisti Y (2007) Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv 25(3):294–306
da Fontoura JT, Rolim GS, Farenzena M, Gutterres M (2017) Influence of light intensity and tannery wastewater concentration on biomass production and nutrient removal by microalgae Scenedesmus sp. Process Saf Environ 111:355–362
Degen J, Uebele A, Retze A, Schmid-Staiger U, Trösch W (2001) A novel airlift photobioreactor with baffles for improved light utilization through the flashing light effect. J Biotechnol 92(2):89–94
Del Campo JA, Rodriguez H, Moreno J, Vargas MA, Rivas J, Guerrero MG (2001) Lutein production by Muriellopsis sp. in an outdoor tubular photobioreactor. J Biotechnol 85(3):289–295
Detweiler AM, Mioni CE, Hellier KL, Allen JJ, Carter SA, Bebout BM, Fleming EE, Corrado C, Prufert-Bebout LE (2015) Evaluation of wavelength selective photovoltaic panels on microalgae growth and photosynthetic efficiency. Algal Res 9:170–177
Di Caprio F, Altimari P, Pagnanelli F (2018) Effect of Ca2+ concentration on Scenedesmus sp. growth in heterotrophic and photoautotrophic cultivation. New Biotechnol 40:228–235
Dogaris I, Welch M, Meiser A, Walmsley L, Philippidis G (2015) A novel horizontal photobioreactor for high-density cultivation of microalgae. Bioresour Tech 198:316–324
Doucha J, Lívanský K (2006) Productivity, CO2/O2 exchange and hydraulics in outdoor open high density microalgal (Chlorella sp.) photobioreactors operated in a Middle and Southern European climate. J Appl Phycol 18(6):811–826
Doucha J, Lívanský K (2009) Outdoor open thin-layer microalgal photobioreactor: potential productivity. J Appl Phycol 21(1):111–117
Doucha J, Straka F, Lívanský K (2005) Utilization of flue gas for cultivation of microalgae Chlorella sp.) in an outdoor open thin-layer photobioreactor. J Appl Phycol 17(5):403–412
Ebrahimi Nigjeh S, Yusoff FM, Mohamed Alitheen NB, Rasoli M, Keong YS, Omar ARb (2013) Cytotoxic effect of ethanol extract of microalga, Chaetoceros calcitrans, and its mechanisms in inducing apoptosis in human breast cancer cell line. Biomed Res Int (Article ID 783690)
Feng P, Deng Z, Hu Z, Fan L (2011) Lipid accumulation and growth of Chlorella zofingiensis in flat plate photobioreactors outdoors. Bioresour Tech 102(22):10577–10584
Foo SC, Yusoff FM, Ismail M, Basri M, Chan KW, Khong NMH, Yau SK (2015) Production of fucoxanthin-rich fraction (FxRF) from a diatom, Chaetoceros calcitrans (Paulsen) Takano 1968. Algal Res 12:26–32
Foo SC, Yusoff FM, Ismail M, Basri M, Yau SK, Khong NMH, Chan KW, Ebrahimi M (2017) Antioxidant capacities of fucoxanthin-producing algae as influenced by their carotenoid and phenolic contents. J Biotechnol 241:175–183
Freitas BCB, Cassuriaga APA, Morais MG, Costa JAV (2017) Pentoses and light intensity increase the growth and carbohydrate production and alter the protein profile of Chlorella minutissima. Bioresour Tech 238:248–253
Fuente D, Keller J, Conejero JA, Rögner M, Rexroth S, Urchueguía JF (2017) Light distribution and spectral composition within cultures of micro-algae: quantitative modelling of the light field in photobioreactors. Algal Res 23:166–177
Gao X, Wang X, Li H, Roje S, Sablani SS, Chen S (2017) Parameterization of a light distribution model for green cell growth of microalgae: Haematococcus pluvialis cultured under red LED lights. Algal Res 23:20–27
García-González M, Moreno J, Cañavate JP (2003) Conditions for open-air outdoor culture of Dunaliella salina in southern Spain. J Appl Phycol 15(2):177–184
García-González M, Moreno J, Manzano JC, Florencio FJ, Guerrero MG (2005) Production of Dunaliella salina biomass rich in 9-cis-β-carotene and lutein in a closed tubular photobioreactor. J Biotechnol 115(1):81–90
Gbadamosi OK, Lupatsch I (2018) Effects of dietary Nannochloropsis salina on the nutritional performance and fatty acid profile of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Algal Res 33:48–54
Georgianna DR, Mayfield SP (2012) Exploiting diversity and synthetic biology for the production of algal biofuels. Nature 488(7411):329–335
Gifuni I, Olivieri G, Pollio A, Franco TT, Marzocchella A (2017) Autotrophic starch production by Chlamydomonas species. J Appl Phycol 29(1):105–114
Goh SH, Alitheen NB, Yusoff FM, Yap SK, Loh SP (2014) Crude ethyl acetate extract of marine microalga, Chaetoceros calcitrans, induces apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Pharmacogn Mag 10(37):1–8
Goldman JC, Ryther JH, Williams LD (1975) Mass production of marine algae in outdoor cultures. Nature 254:594
Gonçalves AL, Pires JCM, Simões M (2016) Biotechnological potential of Synechocystis salina co-cultures with selected microalgae and cyanobacteria: Nutrients removal, biomass and lipid production. Bioresour Tech 200:279–286
Guldhe A, Ansari FA, Singh P, Bux F (2017) Heterotrophic cultivation of microalgae using aquaculture wastewater: a biorefinery concept for biomass production and nutrient remediation. Ecol Eng 99:47–53
Gummert F, Meffert ME, Stratmann H (1953) Nonsterile large-scale culture of Chlorella in greenhouse and open air, In: Burlew JS (ed) Algae culture from laboratory to pilot plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 600, Washington D.C, pp 166–176
Guyon JB, Verge V, Schatt P, Lozano JC, Liennard M (2018) Bouget FY (2018) Comparative analysis of culture conditions for the optimization of carotenoid production in several strains of the picoeukaryote Ostreococcus. Mar Drugs 16:76. https://doi.org/10.3390/md16030076
Hall DO, Acién Fernández FG, Guerrero EC, Rao KK, Grima EM (2003) Outdoor helical tubular photobioreactors for microalgal production: Modeling of fluid-dynamics and mass transfer and assessment of biomass productivity. Biotechnol Bioeng 82(1):62–73
Hase R, Oikawa H, Sasao C, Morita M, Watanabe Y (2000) Photosynthetic production of microalgal biomass in a raceway system under greenhouse conditions in Sendai city. J Biosci Bioeng 89(2):157–163
Hidasi N, Belay A (2018) Diurnal variation of various culture and biochemical parameters of Arthrospira platensis in large-scale outdoor raceway ponds. Algal Res 29:121–129
Hirata S, Hayashitani M, Taya M, Tone S (1996) Carbon dioxide fixation in batch culture of Chlorella sp. using a photobioreactor with a sunlight-collection device. J Ferment Bioeng 81(5):470–472
Holdmann C, Schmid-Staiger U, Hornstein H, Hirth T (2018) Keeping the light energy constant—Cultivation of Chlorella sorokiniana at different specific light availabilities and different photoperiods. Algal Res 29:61–70
Hu J-Y, Sato T (2017) A photobioreactor for microalgae cultivation with internal illumination considering flashing light effect and optimized light-source arrangement. Energ Convers Manage 133:558–565
Hu Q, Guterman H, Richmond A (1996) A flat inclined modular photobioreactor for outdoor mass cultivation of photoautotrophs. Biotechnol Bioeng 51(1):51–60
Huang J, Feng F, Wan M (2015) Improving performance of flat-plate photobioreactors by installation of novel internal mixers optimized with computational fluid dynamics. Bioresour Tech 182:151–159
Huesemann M, Williams P, Edmundson S (2017) The laboratory environmental algae pond simulator (LEAPS) photobioreactor: validation using outdoor pond cultures of Chlorella sorokiniana and Nannochloropsis salina. Algal Res 26:39–46
Huesemann MH, Benemann JR (2009) Biofuels from microalgae: review of products, processes and potential, with special focus on Dunaliella sp. Science Publishers, New Hampshire
Javanmardian M, Palsson BO (1991) High-density photoautotrophic algal cultures: design, construction, and operation of a novel photobioreactor system. Biotechnol Bioeng 38(10):1182–1189
Jiang Y, Zhang W, Wang J, Chen Y, Shen S, Liu T (2013) Utilization of simulated flue gas for cultivation of Scenedesmus dimorphus. Bioresour Tech 128:359–364
Jiménez C, Cossı́o BR, Labella D, Xavier Niell F (2003) The feasibility of industrial production of Spirulina (Arthrospira) in Southern Spain. Aquaculture 217(1):179–190
Jin E-S, Polle JEW, Lee H-K, Hyun S-M, Chang M (2003) Xanthophylls in microalgae: from biosynthesis to biotechnological mass production and application. Korean Soc Appl Microbiol Biotech 13(2):165–174
Jorquera O, Kiperstok A, Sales EA, Embiruçu M, Ghirardi ML (2010) Comparative energy life-cycle analyses of microalgal biomass production in open ponds and photobioreactors. Bioresour Tech 101(4):1406–1413
Kandilian R, Jesus B, Legrand J, Pilon L, Pruvost J (2017) Light transfer in agar immobilized microalgae cell cultures. J Quant Spectrosc Ra 198:81–92
Kandilian R, Soulies A, Pruvost J, Rousseau B, Legrand J, Pilon L (2016) Simple method for measuring the spectral absorption cross-section of microalgae. Chem Eng Sci 146:357–368
Koller AP, Wolf L, Brück T, Weuster-Botz D (2018) Studies on the scale-up of biomass production with Scenedesmus spp. in flat-plate gas-lift photobioreactors. Bioproc Biosyst Eng 41(2):213–220
Kraan S (2013) Mass-cultivation of carbohydrate rich macroalgae, a possible solution for sustainable biofuel production. Mitig Adapt Strat Gl 18(1):27–46
Laws EA, Taguchi S, Hirata J, Pang L (1986a) Continued studies of high algal productivities in a shallow flume. Biomass 11(1):39–50
Laws EA, Taguchi S, Hirata J, Pang L (1986b) High algal production rates achieved in a shallow outdoor flume. Biotechnol Bioeng 28(2):191–197
Laws EA, Taguchi S, Hirata J, Pang L (1988a) Mass culture optimization studies with four marine microalgae. Biomass 16(1):19–32
Laws EA, Taguchi S, Hirata J, Pang L (1988b) Optimization of microalgal production in a shallow outdoor flume. Biotechnol Bioeng 32(2):140–147
Lee Y-H, Li P-H (2017) Using resonant ultrasound field-incorporated dynamic photobioreactor system to enhance medium replacement process for concentrated microalgae cultivation in continuous mode. Chem Eng Res Des 118:112–120
Leonardi RJ, Niizawa I, Irazoqui HA, Heinrich JM (2018) Modeling and simulation of the influence of fractions of blue and red light on the growth of the microalga Scenedesmus quadricauda. Biochem Eng J 129:16–25
Lim KC, Yusoff FM, Shariff M, Kamarudin MS (2018) Astaxanthin as feed supplement in aquatic animals. Rev Aquacult 10(3):738–773
Lima GM, Teixeira PCN, Teixeira CMLL, Filócomo D, Lage CLS (2018) Influence of spectral light quality on the pigment concentrations and biomass productivity of Arthrospira platensis. Algal Res 31:157–166
Liu J, Wu Y, Wu C (2017) Advanced nutrient removal from surface water by a consortium of attached microalgae and bacteria: a review. Bioresour Tech 241:1127–1137
López MCG-M, Sánchez EDR, López JLC (2006) Comparative analysis of the outdoor culture of Haematococcus pluvialis in tubular and bubble column photobioreactors. J Biotechnol 123(3):329–342
López-Rosales L, García-Camacho F, Sánchez-Mirón A, Beato EM, Chisti Y, Grima EM (2016) Pilot-scale bubble column photobioreactor culture of a marine dinoflagellate microalga illuminated with light emission diodes. Bioresour Tech 216:845–855
Lucker BF, Hall CC, Zegarac R, Kramer DM (2014) The environmental photobioreactor (ePBR): an algal culturing platform for simulating dynamic natural environments. Algal Res 6:242–249
Manirafasha E, Murwanashyaka T, Ndikubwimana T (2018) Enhancement of cell growth and phycocyanin production in Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis by metabolic stress and nitrate fed-batch. Bioresour Tech 255:293–301
Maroneze MM, Siqueira SF, Vendruscolo RG (2016) The role of photoperiods on photobioreactors—a potential strategy to reduce costs. Bioresour Technol 219:493–499
Marotta G, Scargiali F, Lima S, Caputo G, Grisafi F, Brucato A (2017) Vacuum air-lift bioreactor for microalgae production. Chem Eng Trans 57:925–930
Masojídek J, Papáček Š, Sergejevová M (2003) A closed solar photobioreactor for cultivation of microalgae under supra-high irradiance: basic design and performance. J Appl Phycol 15(2):239–248
Mayers JJ, Ekman Nilsson A, Albers E, Flynn KJ (2017) Nutrients from anaerobic digestion effluents for cultivation of the microalga Nannochloropsis sp.—impact on growth, biochemical composition and the potential for cost and environmental impact savings. Algal Res 26:275–286
Medipally SR, Yusoff FM, Banerjee S, Shariff M (2015) Microalgae as sustainable renewable energy feedstock for biofuel production. Biomed Res Int 2015:519513
Miranda JR, Passarinho PC, Gouveia L (2012) Bioethanol production from Scenedesmus obliquus sugars: the influence of photobioreactors and culture conditions on biomass production. Appl Microbiol Biot 96(2):555–564
Mirón AS, Garcı́a MCC, Gómez AC, Camacho FGa, Grima EM, Chisti Y (2003) Shear stress tolerance and biochemical characterization of Phaeodactylum tricornutum in quasi steady-state continuous culture in outdoor photobioreactors. Biochem Eng J 16(3):287–297
Mituya A, Nyunoya T, Tamiya H (1953) Re-pilot-plant experiments on algal mass culture. In: Burlew JS (ed) Algal culture: from laboratory to pilot plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 600, Washington D.C., pp 173–184
Mohamed Ramli N, Verdegem MCJ, Yusoff FM, Zulkifely MK, Verreth JAJ (2017) Removal of ammonium and nitrate in recirculating aquaculture systems by the epiphyte Stigeoclonium nanum immobilized in alginate beads. Aquacult Env Interac 9:213–222
Moheimani NR, Borowitzka MA (2006) The long-term culture of the coccolithophore Pleurochrysis carterae (Haptophyta) in outdoor raceway ponds. J Appl Phycol 18(6):703–712
Molina-Miras A, Morales-Amador A, de Vera CR (2018) A pilot-scale bioprocess to produce amphidinols from the marine microalga Amphidinium carterae: Isolation of a novel analogue. Algal Res 31:87–98
Mondal M, Ghosh A, Gayen K, Halder G, Tiwari ON (2017a) Carbon dioxide bio-fixation by Chlorella sp. BTA 9031 towards biomass and lipid production: optimization using central composite design approach. J CO2 Util 22:317–329
Mondal M, Ghosh A, Tiwari ON (2017b) Influence of carbon sources and light intensity on biomass and lipid production of Chlorella sorokiniana BTA 9031 isolated from coalfield under various nutritional modes. Energ Convers Manage 145:247–254
Morais MG, Radmann EM, Andrade MR, Teixeira GG, Brusch LRF, Costa JAV (2009) Pilot scale semi-continuous production of Spirulina biomass in southern Brazil. Aquaculture 294(1):60–64
Moreno J, Vargas MÁ, Rodrı (2003) Outdoor cultivation of a nitrogen-fixing marine cyanobacterium, Anabaena sp. ATCC 33047. Biomol Eng 20(4):191–197
Morita M, Watanabe Y, Saiki H (2002) Photosynthetic productivity of conical helical tubular photobioreactor incorporating Chlorella sorokiniana under field conditions. Biotechnol Bioeng 77(2):155–162
Murray AM, Fotidis IA, Isenschmid A, Haxthausen KRA, Angelidaki I (2017) Wirelessly powered submerged-light illuminated photobioreactors for efficient microalgae cultivation. Algal Res 25:244–251
Naderi G, Znad H, Tade MO (2017) Investigating and modelling of light intensity distribution inside algal photobioreactor. Chem Eng Process 122:530–537
Natrah FMI, Bossier P, Sorgeloos P, Yusoff FM, Defoirdt T (2014) Significance of microalgal–bacterial interactions for aquaculture. Rev Aquacult 6:48–61
Natrah FMI, Yusoff FM, Shariff M, Abas F, Mariana NS (2007) Screening of Malaysian indigenous microalgae for antioxidant properties and nutritional value. J Appl Phycol 19(6):711–718
Norhasyima R, Mahlia T (2018) Advances in CO2 utilization technology: a patent landscape review. J CO2 Util 26:323–335
Novoveská L, Zapata AKM, Zabolotney JB, Atwood MC, Sundstrom ER (2016) Optimizing microalgae cultivation and wastewater treatment in large-scale offshore photobioreactors. Algal Res 18:86–94
Ogbonna JC, Soejima T, Tanaka H (1999) An integrated solar and artificial light system for internal illumination of photobioreactors. In: Osinga R, Tramper J, Burgess JG, Wijffels RH (eds) Prog Ind M 35:289–297
Olaizola M (2000) Commercial production of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis using 25,000-liter outdoor photobioreactors. J Appl Phycol 12(3):499–506
Olguín EJ, Galicia S, Mercado G, Pérez T (2003) Annual productivity of Spirulina (Arthrospira) and nutrient removal in a pig wastewater recycling process under tropical conditions. J Appl Phycol 15(2):249–257
Olivieri G, Salatino P, Marzocchella A (2014) Advances in photobioreactors for intensive microalgal production: configurations, operating strategies and applications. J Chem Technol Biot 89(2):178–195
Ozkan A, Kinney K, Katz L, Berberoglu H (2012) Reduction of water and energy requirement of algae cultivation using an algae biofilm photobioreactor. Bioresour Tech 114:542–548
Panjiar N, Mishra S, Yadav AN, Verma P (2017) Functional foods from cyanobacteria: an emerging source for functional food products of pharmaceutical importance. In: Gupta VK, Treichel H, Shapaval VO, Oliveira LAd, Tuohy MG (eds) Microbial functional foods and nutraceuticals. Wiley, USA, pp 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119048961.ch2
Parlevliet D, Moheimani NR (2014) Efficient conversion of solar energy to biomass and electricity. Aquat Biosyst 10:4
Peng J, Yuan JP, Wang JH (2012) Effect of diets supplemented with different sources of astaxanthin on the gonad of the sea urchin Anthocidaris crassispina. Nutrients 4(8):922–934
Pennington F, Guillard RRL, Liaaen-Jensen S (1988) Carotenoid distribution patterns in Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms). Biochem Syst Ecol 16(7):589–592
Pereira EG, Martins MA, Mendes MDSA, Mendes LBB, Nesi AN (2017) Outdoor cultivation of Scenedesmus obliquus BR003 in stirred tanks by airlift. J Braz Assoc Agric Eng. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1809–4430
Pittman JK, Dean AP, Osundeko O (2011) The potential of sustainable algal biofuel production using wastewater resources. Bioresour Tech 102(1):17–25
Posten C (2009) Design principles of photo-bioreactors for cultivation of microalgae. Eng Life Sci 9(3):165–177 ENG LIFE SCI
Pushparaj B, Pelosi E, Tredici MR, Pinzani E, Materassi R (1997) As integrated culture system for outdoor production of microalgae and cyanobacteria. J Appl Phycol 9(2):113–119
Qin C, Lei Y, Wu J (2018) Light/dark cycle enhancement and energy consumption of tubular microalgal photobioreactors with discrete double inclined ribs. Bioresour. Bioprocess 5:28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-018-0214-8
Rahaman MSA, Cheng L-H, Xu X-H, Zhang L, Chen H-L (2011) A review of carbon dioxide capture and utilization by membrane integrated microalgal cultivation processes. Renew Sust Energ Rev 15(8):4002–4012; Rastogi RP, Pandey A, Larroche C, Madamwar D (2018) Algal green energy—R&D and technological perspectives for biodiesel production. Renew Sust Energ Rev 82:2946–2969
Rezvani F, Sarrafzadeh MH, Seo SH, Oh HM (2017) Phosphorus optimization for simultaneous nitrate-contaminated groundwater treatment and algae biomass production using Ettlia sp. Bioresour Tech 244(Pt 1):785–792
Richmond A, Cheng-Wu Z (2001) Optimization of a flat plate glass reactor for mass production of Nannochloropsis sp. outdoors. J Biotechnol 85(3):259–269
Richmond A, Lichtenberg E, Stahl B, Vonshak A (1990) Quantitative assessment of the major limitations on productivity of Spirulina platensis in open raceways. J Appl Phycol 2(3):195–206
Rocha RP, Machado M, Vaz MGMV (2017) Exploring the metabolic and physiological diversity of native microalgal strains (Chlorophyta) isolated from tropical freshwater reservoirs. Algal Res 28:139–150
Rodolfi L, Chini Zittelli G, Bassi N (2009) Microalgae for oil: strain selection, induction of lipid synthesis and outdoor mass cultivation in a low-cost photobioreactor. Biotechnol Bioeng 102(1):100–112
Ryckebosch E, Bruneel C, Termote-Verhalle R, Goiris K, Muylaert K, Foubert I (2014) Nutritional evaluation of microalgae oils rich in omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids as an alternative for fish oil. Food Chem 160:393–400
Saeid A, Chojnacka K (2015) Toward production of microalgae in photobioreactors under temperate climate. Chem Eng Res Des 93:377–391
Sánchez Mirón A, Cerón Garcı́a M-C, Garcı́a Camacho F, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (2002) Growth and biochemical characterization of microalgal biomass produced in bubble column and airlift photobioreactors: studies in fed-batch culture. Enzyme Microb Tech 31(7):1015–1023
Sánchez Mirón A, Contreras Gómez A, Garcı́a Camacho F, Molina Grima E, Chisti Y (1999) Comparative evaluation of compact photobioreactors for large-scale monoculture of microalgae. J Biotechnol 70(1):249–270
Schenk PM, Thomas-Hall SR, Stephens E (2008) Second generation biofuels: high-efficiency microalgae for biodiesel production. Bioenerg Res 1(1):20–43
Schultze LKP, Simon M-V, Li T, Langenbach D, Podola B, Melkonian M (2015) High light and carbon dioxide optimize surface productivity in a Twin-Layer biofilm photobioreactor. Algal Res 8:37–44
Schulze PSC, Barreira LA, Pereira HGC, Perales JA, Varela JCS (2014) Light emitting diodes (LEDs) applied to microalgal production. Trends Biotechnol 32(8):422–430
Schulze PSC, Pereira HGC, Santos TFC (2016) Effect of light quality supplied by light emitting diodes (LEDs) on growth and biochemical profiles of Nannochloropsis oculata and Tetraselmis chuii. Algal Res 16:387–398
Seo SH, Ha JS, Yoo C (2017) Light intensity as major factor to maximize biomass and lipid productivity of Ettlia sp. in CO2-controlled photoautotrophic chemostat. Bioresour Tech 244(Pt 1):621–628
Seshadri CV, Thomas S (1979) Mass culture of spirulina using low-cost nutrients. Biotechnol Lett 1(7):287–291
Sun Y, Huang Y, Liao Q, Fu Q, Zhu X (2016) Enhancement of microalgae production by embedding hollow light guides to a flat-plate photobioreactor. Bioresour Tech 207:31–38
Thawechai T, Cheirsilp B, Louhasakul Y, Boonsawang P, Prasertsan P (2016) Mitigation of carbon dioxide by oleaginous microalgae for lipids and pigments production: Effect of light illumination and carbon dioxide feeding strategies. Bioresour Tech 219:139–149
Torzillo G, Carlozzi P, Pushparaj B, Montaini E, Materassi R (1993) A two-plane tubular photobioreactor for outdoor culture of Spirulina. Biotechnol Bioeng 42(7):891–898
Torzillo G, Pushparaj B, Bocci F, Balloni W, Materassi R, Florenzano G (1986) Production of Spirulina biomass in closed photobioreactors. Biomass 11(1):61–74
Tredici MR, Carlozzi P, Chini Zittelli G, Materassi R (1991) A vertical alveolar panel (VAP) for outdoor mass cultivation of microalgae and cyanobacteria. Bioresour Tech 38(2):153–159
Ugwu C, Ogbonna J, Tanaka H (2002) Improvement of mass transfer characteristics and productivities of inclined tubular photobioreactors by installation of internal static mixers. Appl Microbiol Biot 58(5):600–607
Ugwu CU, Aoyagi H, Uchiyama H (2008) Photobioreactors for mass cultivation of algae. Bioresour Tech 99(10):4021–4028
Ugwu CU, Ogbonna JC, Tanaka H (2005) Light/dark cyclic movement of algal culture (Synechocystis aquatilis) in outdoor inclined tubular photobioreactor equipped with static mixers for efficient production of biomass. Biotechnol Lett 27(2):75–78
Vadiveloo A, Moheimani NR, Cosgrove JJ, Bahri PA, Parlevliet D (2015) Effect of different light spectra on the growth and productivity of acclimated Nannochloropsis sp. (Eustigmatophyceae). Algal Res 8:121–127
Vallejos-Vidal V, Reyes-Lopez F, Teles M, MacKenzie S (2016) The response of fish to immunostimulant diets. Fish Shellfish Immun 56:116–121
Vergara C, Muñoz R, Campos JL, Seeger M, Jeison D (2016) Influence of light intensity on bacterial nitrifying activity in algal-bacterial photobioreactors and its implications for microalgae-based wastewater treatment. Int Biodeter Biodegr 114:116–121
Watanabe A, Hattori A, Fujita Y, Kiyohara T (1959) Large scale culture of a blue-green alga, Tolypothrix tenuis, utilizing hot spring and natural gas as heat and carbon dioxide sources. J Gen Appl Microbiol 5(1–2):51–57
Willette S, Gill SS, Dungan B (2018) Alterations in lipidome and metabolome profiles of Nannochloropsis salina in response to reduced culture temperature during sinusoidal temperature and light. Algal Res 32:79–92
Xia S, Wang K, Wan L, Li A, Hu Q, Zhang C (2013) Production, characterization, and antioxidant activity of fucoxanthin from the marine diatom Odontella aurita. Mar Drugs 11(7):2667–2681
Yan C, Muñoz R, Zhu L, Wang Y (2016) The effects of various LED (light emitting diode) lighting strategies on simultaneous biogas upgrading and biogas slurry nutrient reduction by using of microalgae Chlorella sp. Energy 106:554–561
Ye Q, Cheng J, Guo W, Xu J, Li K, Zhou J (2018) Serial lantern-shaped draft tube enhanced flashing light effect for improving CO2 fixation with microalgae in a gas-lift circumflux column photobioreactor. Bioresour Tech 255:156–162
Zhang CW, Richmond A (2003) Sustainable, high-yielding outdoor mass cultures of Chaetoceros muelleri var. subsalsum and Isochrysis galbana in vertical plate reactors. Mar Biotechnol 5(3):302–310
Zhang J-Y, Qi H, He Z-Z, Yu X-Y, Ruan L-M (2017a) Investigation of light transfer procedure and photobiological hydrogen production of microalgae in photobioreactors at different locations of China. Int J Hydrogen Energ 42(31):19709–19722
Zhang T (2013) Dynamics of fluid and light intensity in mechanically stirred photobioreactor. J Biotechnol 168(1):107–116
Zhang Z, Huang JJ, Sun D, Lee Y, Chen F (2017b) Two-step cultivation for production of astaxanthin in Chlorella zofingiensis using a patented energy-free rotating floating photobioreactor (RFP). Bioresour Tech 224:515–522
Zhu L, Wang Z, Takala J (2013) Scale-up potential of cultivating Chlorella zofingiensis in piggery wastewater for biodiesel production. Bioresour Tech 137:318–325
Zhuang L-L, Azimi Y, Yu D, Wu Y-H, Hu H-Y (2018) Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations on the growth of microalgae Scenedesmus. LX1 in suspended-solid phase photobioreactors (ssPBR). Biomass Bioenerg 109:47–53
Zijffers J-WF, Salim S, Janssen M, Tramper J, Wijffels RH (2008) Capturing sunlight into a photobioreactor: Ray tracing simulations of the propagation of light from capture to distribution into the reactor. Chem Eng J 145(2):316–327
Acknowledgements
This study is partially supported by the SATREPS-COSMOS Malaysia-Japan collaborative project under the auspices of the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education Malaysia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Yusoff, F.M., Nagao, N., Imaizumi, Y., Toda, T. (2019). Bioreactor for Microalgal Cultivation Systems: Strategy and Development. In: Rastegari, A., Yadav, A., Gupta, A. (eds) Prospects of Renewable Bioprocessing in Future Energy Systems. Biofuel and Biorefinery Technologies, vol 10. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14463-0_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14463-0_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-14462-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-14463-0
eBook Packages: EnergyEnergy (R0)