Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Metabolic Syndrome and Excessive Body Weight in Peri- and Postmenopausal Women

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Postmenopausal Diseases and Disorders

Abstract

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) has been associated with the endocrine, metabolic, and immunological functions of the adipose tissue. In parallel, obesity is strongly associated with disorder of glucose, lipid metabolism, and insulin resistance, and it is considered a common predisposing factor for elevated risk of several serious health conditions including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and other cardiovascular disease (CVD), fatty liver disease, and some types of cancer. The incidence of CVD in women increases substantially with aging, probably because the menopause diminishes the gender estrogenic protection, thus contributing to an adverse impact on cardiovascular risk variables. CVD has become the leading cause of death for women. In this setting, the perimenopause must be considered a critical period in women’s life because it leads to several adverse changes especially in the lipid profile and modifies cardiovascular risk factors. Therefore, it could be necessary to encourage lifestyle measures and therapeutic interventions such as personalized hormone replacement therapy (HRT) throughout the perimenopause in order to counteract or prevent these events. HRT for postmenopausal women has been available for more than 60 years. Ever since, HRT has been a subject of discussion and debate regarding its safety and efficacy; nowadays it is well established that timing in the initiation and the type, dose, and route of HRT are crucial for the success of therapy, as well as for the control of possible adverse effects.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Corcoran MP, Meydani M, Lichtenstein AH, Schaefer EJ, Dillard A, Lamon-Fava S. Sex hormone modulation of proinflammatory cytokine and C-reactive protein expression in macrophages from older men and postmenopausal women. J Endocrinol. 2010;206(2):217–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Hu G, Lindstrom J, Jousilahti P, Peltonen M, Sjoberg L, Kaaja R, et al. The increasing prevalence of metabolic syndrome among Finnish men and women over a decade. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(3):832–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Fu XD, Simoncini T. Non-genomic sex steroid actions in the vascular system. Semin Reprod Med. 2007;25(3):178–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Donaldson C, Eder S, Baker C, Aronovitz MJ, Weiss AD, Hall-Porter M, et al. Estrogen attenuates left ventricular and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by an estrogen receptor-dependent pathway that increases calcineurin degradation. Circ Res. 2009;104(2):265–75, 11p following 75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Toth MJ, Tchernof A, Sites CK, Poehlman ET. Effect of menopausal status on body composition and abdominal fat distribution. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2000;24(2):226–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Toth MJ, Tchernof A, Sites CK, Poehlman ET. Menopause-related changes in body fat distribution. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;904:502–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Mueller SO, Korach KS. Estrogen receptors and endocrine diseases: lessons from estrogen receptor knockout mice. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2001;1(6):613–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Lizcano F, Guzman G. Estrogen deficiency and the origin of obesity during menopause. Biomed Res Int. 2014;2014:757461.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Genazzani AR, Gambacciani M. Effect of climacteric transition and hormone replacement therapy on body weight and body fat distribution. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2006;22(3):145–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Matthews KA, Crawford SL, Chae CU, Everson-Rose SA, Sowers MF, Sternfeld B, et al. Are changes in cardiovascular disease risk factors in midlife women due to chronological aging or to the menopausal transition? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(25):2366–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Santoro N. The Study of Women’s Health Across the Nation (SWAN). Obstet Gynecol Clin N Am. 2011;38(3):xvii–xix.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Sanders RJ. Risk of long-term hot flashes after natural menopause: evidence from the Penn ovarian aging study cohort. Menopause. 2014;21(9):924–32.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Freeman EW, Sammel MD, Liu L, Gracia CR, Nelson DB, Hollander L. Hormones and menopausal status as predictors of depression in women in transition to menopause. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(1):62–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Simkin-Silverman LR, Wing RR. Weight gain during menopause. Is it inevitable or can it be prevented. Postgrad Med. 2000;108(3):47–50, 53–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Giri A, Hartmann KE, Hellwege JN, Velez Edwards DR, Edwards TL. Obesity and pelvic organ prolapse: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2017;217(1):11–26.e3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Palacios S, Mejia A, Neyro JL. Treatment of the genitourinary syndrome of menopause. Climacteric. 2015;18(Suppl 1):23–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Davis SR, Castelo-Branco C, Chedraui P, Lumsden MA, Nappi RE, Shah D, et al. Understanding weight gain at menopause. Climacteric. 2012;15(5):419–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Dunn JF, Nisula BC, Rodbard D. Transport of steroid hormones: binding of 21 endogenous steroids to both testosterone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981;53(1):58–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Canonico M, Oger E, Conard J, Meyer G, Levesque H, Trillot N, et al. Obesity and risk of venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women: differential impact of hormone therapy by route of estrogen administration. The ESTHER study. J Thromb Haemost. 2006;4(6):1259–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Gartoulla P, Worsley R, Bell RJ, Davis SR. Moderate to severe vasomotor and sexual symptoms remain problematic for women aged 60 to 65 years. Menopause. 2015;22(7):694–701.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Welton AJ, Vickers MR, Kim J, Ford D, Lawton BA, MacLennan AH, et al. Health related quality of life after combined hormone replacement therapy: randomised controlled trial. BMJ. 2008;337:a1190.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Olie V, Plu-Bureau G, Conard J, Horellou MH, Canonico M, Scarabin PY. Hormone therapy and recurrence of venous thromboembolism among postmenopausal women. Menopause. 2011;18(5):488–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Hoibraaten E, Qvigstad E, Arnesen H, Larsen S, Wickstrom E, Sandset PM. Increased risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism during hormone replacement therapy—results of the randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled estrogen in venous thromboembolism trial (EVTET). Thromb Haemost. 2000;84(6):961–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Palacios S, Castelo-Branco C, Currie H, Mijatovic V, Nappi RE, Simon J, et al. Update on management of genitourinary syndrome of menopause: a practical guide. Maturitas. 2015;82(3):308–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Davis SR, Lambrinoudaki I, Lumsden M, Mishra GD, Pal L, Rees M, et al. Menopause. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015;1:15004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Roberts H, Hickey M, Lethaby A. Hormone therapy in postmenopausal women and risk of endometrial hyperplasia: a cochrane review summary. Maturitas. 2014;77(1):4–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Schindler AE. The “newer” progestogens and postmenopausal hormone therapy (HRT). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2014;142:48–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Pluchino N, Carmignani A, Cubeddu A, Santoro A, Cela V, Errasti T. Androgen therapy in women: for whom and when. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2013;288(4):731–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Genazzani AR, Stomati M, Valentino V, Pluchino N, Pot E, Casarosa E, et al. Effect of 1-year, low-dose DHEA therapy on climacteric symptoms and female sexuality. Climacteric. 2011;14(6):661–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Pluchino N, Ninni F, Stomati M, Freschi L, Casarosa E, Valentino V, et al. One-year therapy with 10 mg/day DHEA alone or in combination with HRT in postmenopausal women: effects on hormonal milieu. Maturitas. 2008;59(4):293–303.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Constantine G, Graham S, Portman DJ, Rosen RC, Kingsberg SA. Female sexual function improved with ospemifene in postmenopausal women with vulvar and vaginal atrophy: results of a randomized, placebokcontrolled trial. Climacteric. 2015;18(2):226–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Pickar JH, Yeh IT, Bachmann G, Speroff L. Endometrial effects of a tissue selective estrogen complex containing bazedoxifene/conjugated estrogens as a menopausal therapy. Fertil Steril. 2009;92(3):1018–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Genazzani AR, Komm BS, Pickar JH. Emerging hormonal treatments for menopausal symptoms. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2015;20(1):31–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Rymer J, Robinson J, Fogelman I. Ten years of treatment with tibolone 2.5 mg daily: effects on bone loss in postmenopausal women. Climacteric. 2002;5(4):390–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Valdivia I, Campodonico I, Tapia A, Capetillo M, Espinoza A, Lavin P. Effects of tibolone and continuous combined hormone therapy on mammographic breast density and breast histochemical markers in postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril. 2004;81(3):617–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Hickey M, Schoenaker DA, Joffe H, Mishra GD. Depressive symptoms across the menopause transition: findings from a large population-based cohort study. Menopause. 2016;23(12):1287–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Ingle JN, Johnson PA, Suman VJ, Gerstner JB, Mailliard JA, Camoriano JK, et al. A randomized phase II trial of two dosage levels of letrozole as third-line hormonal therapy for women with metastatic breast carcinoma. Cancer. 1997;80(2):218–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Pachman DR, Barton DL, Swetz KM, Loprinzi CL. Troublesome symptoms in cancer survivors: fatigue, insomnia, neuropathy, and pain. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30(30):3687–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

    Andrea Giannini, Maria Magdalena Montt-Guevara, Jorge Eduardo Shortrede, Giulia Palla, Andrea Riccardo Genazzani & Tommaso Simoncini

  2. Instituto de Investigación e Innovación en Salud Integral, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador

    Peter Chedraui

Authors
  1. Andrea Giannini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Maria Magdalena Montt-Guevara
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jorge Eduardo Shortrede
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Giulia Palla
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Peter Chedraui
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Andrea Riccardo Genazzani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Tommaso Simoncini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tommaso Simoncini .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Zaragoza Facultad de Medicina, Zaragoza, Spain

    Faustino R. Pérez-López

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Giannini, A. et al. (2019). Metabolic Syndrome and Excessive Body Weight in Peri- and Postmenopausal Women. In: Pérez-López, F. (eds) Postmenopausal Diseases and Disorders. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13936-0_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13936-0_14

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-13935-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-13936-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation