Advertisement

The Illegal Wildlife Trade

  • Rebecca W. Y. WongEmail author
Chapter
First Online:
  • 417 Downloads
Part of the Palgrave Studies in Green Criminology book series (PSGC)

Abstract

This chapter contextualizes the development of green criminology and the study of environmental crime. In specific, it examines the stages of the illegal wildlife trade: (1) poaching, (2) smuggling, (3) processing, and (4) online distribution.

Keywords

Green criminology Environmental crime Illegal wildlife trade Smuggling Poaching Corruption 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Agger, K., & Hutson, J. (2013). Kony’s ivory: How elephant poaching in Congo helps support the Lord’s Resistance Army. Retrieved from Enough Project. https://enoughproject.org/files/KonysIvory.pdf.
  2. Ahmed, A. (2010). Imperilled custodian of the night: A study on illegal trade, trapping and use of owls in India. Retrieved from http://www.traffic.org/species-reports/traffic_species_birds12.pdf.
  3. Alves, R. R. N., Lima, J. R. F., & Araújo, H. F. (2013). The live bird trade in Brazil and its conservation implications: An overview. Bird Conservation International, 23(1), 53–65.  https://doi.org/10.1017/s095927091200010x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Arreguín-Sánchez, F., del Monte-Luna, P., Zetina-Rejón, M. J., & Albáñez-Lucero, M. O. (2017). The Gulf of California large marine ecosystem: Fisheries and other natural resources. Environmental Development, 22, 71–77.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.03.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Auliya, M., Altherr, S., Ariano-Sanchez, D., Baard, E. H., Brown, C., Brown, R. M., … & Ziegler, T. (2016). Trade in live reptiles, its impact on wild populations, and the role of the European market. Biological Conservation, 204, 103–119.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.05.017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Ayling, J. (2013). What sustains wildlife crime? Rhino horn trading and the resilience of criminal networks. Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy, 16(1), 57–80.  https://doi.org/10.1080/13880292.2013.764776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Beirne, P. (1995). The use and abuse of animals in criminology: A brief history and current review. Social Justice, 22(1 [59]), 5–31. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/29766862.
  8. Bennett, E. L. (2015). Another inconvenient truth: The failure of enforcement systems to save charismatic species. In G. Wuerthner, E. Crist, & T. Butler (Eds.), Protecting the wild (pp. 189–193). Washington, DC: Island Press/Center for Resource Economics.  https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-551-9_20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Bodeo-Lomicky, A., & Whittenbury, W. (2015). Why the extinction of the vaquita should matter to all of us—A teenager’s perspective. Journal of Marine Animals and Their Ecology, 8, 3–5.Google Scholar
  10. Brack, D., & Hayman, G. (2002). International environmental crime: The nature and control of environmental black markets. Retrieved from Royal Institute of International Affairs. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/archives/docum/pdf/02544_environmental_crime_workshop.pdf.
  11. C4ADS. (2017). Hooked: How demand for a protected fish lined the pockets of Mexican cartels & sunk the future of an endangered porpoise species. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/566ef8b4d8af107232d5358a/t/59c011106f4ca3a44430588c/1505759529205/Hooked.pdf.
  12. Cao Ngoc, A., & Wyatt, T. (2013). A green criminological exploration of illegal wildlife trade in. Asian Journal of Criminology, 8(2), 129–142.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-012-9154-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. Capel, P. D., & Giger, W. (1988). The Sandoz/Rhine accident. In G. Angeletti & A. Bjørseth (Eds.), Organic micropollutants in the aquatic environment (pp. 189–194). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands.  https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2989-0_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Caplog Group, & EDF Mexico. (2014). China’s luxury seafood demand and Mexico’s fisheries. Retrieved from https://www.edf.org/sites/default/files/content/chinasluxuryseafooddemand.pdf.
  15. Cisneros-Mata, M. A., Montemayor-López, G., & Román-Rodríguez, M. J. (1995). Life history and conservation of Totoaba macdonaldi. Conservation Biology, 9(4), 806–814.  https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1995.09040806.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Corcoran, B. (2018, March 26). Grace Mugabe links to trade under investigation. The Irish Times. Retrieved from https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/africa/grace-mugabe-links-to-ivory-trade-under-investigation-1.3441127.
  17. Crosta, A., & Sutherland, K. (2017). Investigating the Southeast China totoaba maw trade as this traditional product is causing the extinction of both the vaquita and the totoaba. Retrieved from Elephant Action League. https://elephantleague.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/EAL-Totoaba-Report-May-2017.pdf.
  18. Curtis, G. E., Elan, S. L., Hudson, R. A., & Kollars, N. A. (2002). Transnational activities of Chinese crime organizations. Trends in Organized Crime, 7(3), 19–57.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-002-1011-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Duffy, R., & St John, F. (2013). Poverty, and trafficking: What are the links? Evidence on demand.  https://doi.org/10.12774/eod_hd059.jun2013.duffy.
  20. Elliott, L. (2007). Transnational environmental crime in the Asia Pacific: An ‘un (der) securitized’ security problem? The Pacific Review, 20(4), 499–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Environmental Investigation Agency. (2010). OPEN SEASON: The burgeoning illegal ivory trade in Tanzania and Zambia. Retrieved from https://content.eia-global.org/assets/2010/03/Open_Season.pdf.
  22. Environmental Investigation Agency. (2013). Vietnam’s illegal rhino horn trade: Undermining the effectiveness of CITES. Retrieved from https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/Species-Rhino-CITES-COP-Red.pdf.
  23. Environmental Investigation Agency. (2014). Vanishing point: Criminality, and the devastation of Tanzania’s elephants. Retrieved from https://eia-international.org/wp-content/uploads/EIAVanishing-Point-lo-res1.pdf.
  24. Environmental Investigation Agency. (2016). The dirty secret of Japan’s illegal ivory trade. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/environmental-investigation-agency/assets/2016/09/dirty_secrets_of_japans_illegal__trade/Japans_Dirty_Secret_English.pdf.
  25. Federal Attorney for Environmental Protection. (2016). Presentan SEDENA y PROFEPA ante El MPF a 2 Personas por Posesión de 6 Buches de Totoaba, en Baja California. Retrieved from www.profepa.gob.mx/innovaportal/v/8025/1/mx/presentan_sedena_y_profepa_ante_el_mpf_a_2_personas_por_posesion_de_6_buches_de_totoaba_en_baja_california.html.
  26. Felbab-Brown, V. (2011). The disappearing act: The illicit trade in wildlife in Asia. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
  27. Guangzhou History. (2008). Ivory Craver Fung Keung Hap. Retrieved from http://www.gzzxws.gov.cn/gzws/gzws/ml/45/200809/t20080916_8369.htm.
  28. Hastie, J., & McCrea-Steele, T. (2014). Wanted—dead or alive: Exposing online wildlife trade. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/ifaw-pantheon/sites/default/files/legacy/IFAW-Wanted-Dead-or-Alive-Exposing-Online-Wildlife-Trade-2014.pdf.
  29. Hou, L. (2018, April 3). Pollution? Blame uptick in production. China Daily. Retrieved from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/03/WS5ac2bdf1a3105cdcf6515d64.html.
  30. Invisible Children, & The Resolve LRA Crisis Tracker. (2012). LRA crisis tracker 2012 annual security brief. Retrieved from https://reports.lracrisistracker.com/pdf/2012-A-LRA-Crisis-Tracker-Annual-Brief-LowRes.pdf.
  31. Jaramillo‐Legorreta, A., Cardenas‐Hinojosa, G., Nieto‐Garcia, E., Rojas‐Bracho, L., Hoef, J. V., Moore, J., … & Taylor, B. (2016). Passive acoustic monitoring of the decline of Mexico’s critically endangered vaquita. Conservation Biology, 31(1), 183–191.  https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12789.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Kat, P. (2013). Rhino in Kruger National Park—connivance, RENAMO and Marenge diamonds? Retrieved from https://lionaid.org/news/2013/04/rhino-poaching-in-kruger-national-park-connivance-renamo-and-marenge-diamonds.htm.
  33. Kitade, T. (2017). An updated review of online trade in Japan. Retrieved from https://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/data/20170808_wildlife02.pdf.
  34. Knapp, E. J. (2012). Why poaching pays: A summary of risks and benefits illegal hunters face in Western Serengeti Tanzania. Tropical Conservation Science, 5(4), 434–445.  https://doi.org/10.1177/194008291200500403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Lavorgna, A. (2014). Wildlife trafficking in the Internet age. Crime Science, 3(1), 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Lin, J. (2005). Tackling Southeast Asia’s illegal wildlife trade. Sybil, 9, 191.Google Scholar
  37. Lynch, M. J. (1990). The greening of criminology: A perspective on the 1990s. The Critical Criminologist, 2(3), 1–4.Google Scholar
  38. Lynch, M. J., & Stretesky, P. B. (2014). Exploring. Surrey: Ashgate.Google Scholar
  39. Martini, M. (2013). Wildlife crime and corruption. Retrieved from U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Center. https://www.u4.no/publications/.pdf.
  40. McGarrity. (2015). When the wind blows: What’s behind’s better air? Retrieved from https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/7951-When-the-wind-blows-What-s-behind-Beijing-s-better-air-.
  41. Moreto, W. D., & Lemieux, A. M. (2015). Poaching in Uganda: Perspectives of law enforcement rangers. Deviant Behavior, 36(11), 853–873.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2014.977184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Nellemann, C., Henriksen, R., Raxter, P., Ash, N., & Mrema, E. (2014). The environmental crime crisis: Threats to sustainable development from illegal exploitation and trade in wildlife and forest resources. Retrieved from UNEP. https://www.cbd.int/financial/monterreytradetech/unep-illegaltrade.pdf.
  43. Nurse, A. (2013). Privatising the green police: The role of NGOs in wildlife. Crime, Law and Social Change, 59(3), 305–318.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-013-9417-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Ondoua, O. G., Beodo, M. E., Mambo, M. J. C., Jiagho, R., Usongo, L., & Williamson, E. A. (2017). An assessment of poaching and wildlife trafficking in the Garamba-Bili-Chinko transboundary landscape. Retrieved from www.traffic.org/general-reports/Garamba-Bili-Chinko.pdf.
  45. Pham, J. P. (2013). Poaching peace and security. Retrieved from http://www.atlanticcouncilorg/blogs/new-atlanticist/-peace-and-security.
  46. Pires, S. F. (2012). The illegal parrot trade: A literature review. Global Crime, 13(3), 176–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Pires, S. F., & Clarke, R. V. (2011). Sequential foraging, itinerant fences and parrot poaching in Bolivia. British Journal of Criminology, 51(2), 314–335.  https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azq074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Pires, S., & Clarke, R. V. (2012). Are parrots CRAVED? An analysis of parrot poaching in Mexico. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 49(1), 122–146.  https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427810397950.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Pires, S. F., & Moreto, W. D. (2011). Preventing wildlife crimes: Solutions that can overcome the ‘tragedy of the commons’. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 17(2), 101–123.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9141-3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Pires, S. F., Schneider, J. L., & Herrera, M. (2016). Organized crime or crime that is organized? The parrot trade in the neotropics. Trends in Organized Crime, 19(1), 4–20.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-015-9259-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Rao, M., Myint, T., Zaw, T., & Htun, S. (2005). Hunting patterns in tropical forests adjoining the Hkakaborazi National Park, North. Oryx, 39(3).  https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605305000724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Reuter, P., & O’Regan, D. (2017). Smuggling wildlife in the Americas: Scale, methods, and links to other organised crimes. Global Crime, 18(2), 77–99.  https://doi.org/10.1080/17440572.2016.1179633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Rounds, Z., Huang, H., & Gu, R. (2016, October 13). What do Chinese in South Africa think of the ivory trade. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/10/13/-trade-rhino-horn-survey-china-house/.
  54. Rucevska, I., Nellemann, C., Isarin, N., Yang, W., Liu, N., Yu, K., … & Bisschop, L. (2017). Waste crime–waste risks: Gaps in meeting the global waste challenge. A UNEP rapid response assessment. Retrieved from GRID-Arendal. https://gridarendal-website-live.s3.amazonaws.com/production/documents/:s_document/28/original/RRAwasteSummary_screen.pdf?1483646302.
  55. Save the Elephants. (2015). Hong Kong’s more items for sale than in any other city in the world. Retrieved from http://savetheelephants.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/2015HongKongIvoryReport.pdf.
  56. Sollund, R. (2013). Animal trafficking and trade: Abuse and species injustice. In Emerging issues in Green Criminology (pp. 72–92). London: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. South, N., & Wyatt, T. (2011). Comparing illicit trades in wildlife and drugs: An exploratory study. Deviant Behavior, 32(6), 538–561.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2010.483162.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Spapens, T., & Huisman, W. (2016). Tackling cross-border environmental crime: A ‘wicked problem.’ In T. Spapens, R. White, & W. Huisman (Eds.), Environmental crime in transnational context: Global issues in green enforcement and criminology (pp. 27–42). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Google Scholar
  59. Spapens, T., White, R., & Huisman, W. (Eds.). (2016). Environmental crime in transnational context: Global issues in green enforcement and criminology. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Google Scholar
  60. Stanway, D. (2018, January 18). Cities in China’s Hebei province still top list of smoggiest places. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-pollution/cities-in-chinas-hebei-province-still-top-list-of-smoggiest-places-idUSKBN1F70CA.
  61. Tai Kung Net. (2016). Sunset industry. Retrieved from http://news.takungpao.com.hk/paper/q/2016/0622/3336237.html.
  62. Taylor, B. L., Rojas‐Bracho, L., Moore, J., Jaramillo‐Legorreta, A., Ver Hoef, J. M., Cardenas‐Hinojosa, G., … & Hammond, P. S. (2016). Extinction is imminent for Mexico’s endemic porpoise unless fishery bycatch is eliminated. Conservation Letters, 10(5), 588–595.  https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Thomas, L., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A., Cardenas-Hinojosa, G., Nieto-Garcia, E., Rojas-Bracho, L., Ver Hoef, J. M., … & Tregenza, N. (2017). Last call: Passive acoustic monitoring shows continued rapid decline of critically endangered vaquita. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 142(5), EL512-EL517.Google Scholar
  64. UNEP, CITES, IUCN, & TRAFFIC. (2013). Elephants in the dust—The African elephant crisis. Retrieved from https://www.cites.org/sites/default/files/common/resources/pub/Elephants_in_the_dust.pdf.
  65. UNODC. (2012). Wildlife and forest crime: Analytic toolkit revised edition. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/Wildlife/Toolkit_e.pdf.
  66. UNODC. (2016). World wildlife crime report: Trafficking in protected species. Retrieved from https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/wildlife/World_Wildlife_Crime_Report_2016_final.pdf.
  67. Valenzuela-Quiñonez, F., Arreguín-Sánchez, F., Salas-Márquez, S., García-De León, F. J., Garza, J. C., Román-Rodríguez, M. J., & De-Anda-Montañez, J. A. (2015). Critically endangered totoaba Totoaba macdonaldi: Signs of recovery and potential threats after a population collapse. Endangered Species Research, 29(1), 1–11.  https://doi.org/10.3354/esr00693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. van Uhm, D. P. (2016). Monkey business: The illegal trade in Barbary macaques. Journal of Trafficking, Organized Crime and Security, 2(1), 36–49.Google Scholar
  69. van Uhm, D. P., & Moreto, W. D. (2017). Corruption within the illegal wildlife trade: A symbiotic and antithetical enterprise. The British Journal of Criminology.  https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azx032.
  70. van Uhm, D., & Siegel, D. (2016). The illegal trade in black caviar. Trends in Organized Crime, 19(1), 67–87.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-016-9264-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Vira, V., Ewing, T., & Miller, J. (2014). Out of Africa: Mapping the global trade in illicit elephant. Retrieved from C4ADS. http://www.c4ads.org/#!project-highlights/c21l1.
  72. von Essen, E., Hansen, H. P., Nordström Källström, H., Peterson, M. N., & Peterson, T. R. (2014). Deconstructing the poaching phenomenon: A review of typologies for understanding illegal hunting. The British Journal of Criminology, 54(4), 632–651.  https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azu022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Wang, F., Kuehr, R., Ahlquist, D., & Li, J. (2013). E-waste in China: A Country report (StEP Green Paper Series). Retrieved from https://collections.unu.edu/eserv/UNU:1624/ewaste-in-china.pdf.
  74. Warchol, G. L. (2004). The transnational illegal wildlife trade. Criminal Justice Studies, 17(1), 57–73.  https://doi.org/10.1080/08884310420001679334.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Warchol, G., & Harrington, M. (2016). Exploring the dynamics of South Africa’s illegal abalone trade via routine activities theory. Trends in Organized Crime, 19(1), 21–41.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s12117-016-9265-4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. White, R. D. (2008). Crimes against nature: Environmental criminology and ecological justice. Cullompton: Willan Publishing. Google Scholar
  77. White, R. D. (2011). Transnational environmental crime: Toward an eco-global criminology. London: Routledge. Google Scholar
  78. Williams, P. (2001). Transnational criminal networks. Networks and Netwars: The Future of Terror, Crime, and Militancy, 1382, 61.Google Scholar
  79. Wong, R. W. Y. (2016). The role of in the illegal purchase of protected wildlife in China. Deviant Behavior, 38(11), 1290–1302.  https://doi.org/10.1080/01639625.2016.1248716.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. World Wildlife Fund. (2016). How to ban the trade in Hong Kong beginning today. Retrieved from http://awsassets.wwfhk.panda.org/downloads/wwf_ivorybanressearch_english.pdf.
  81. Wyatt, T. (2009). Exploring the organization of Russia Far East’s illegal wildlife trade: Two case studies of the illegal fur and illegal falcon trades. Global Crime, 10(1–2), 144–154.  https://doi.org/10.1080/17440570902783947.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Wyatt, T. (2013). The local context of transnational wildlife trafficking: The Heathrow Animal Reception Centre. In R. Walters, S. D. Westerhuis, & T. Wyatt (Eds.), Emerging issues in green criminology (pp. 108–123). London: Palgrave Macmillan.  https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137273994_7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Wyatt, T., & Cao Ngoc, A. (2015). Corruption and wildlife trafficking. U4 issue. Retrieved from Anti-Corruption Resource Centre. https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/-and-wildlife-trafficking.pdf.
  84. Wyatt, T., Johnson, K., Hunter, L., George, R., & Gunter, R. (2018). Corruption and wildlife trafficking: Three case studies involving Asia. Asian Journal of Criminology, 13(1), 35–55.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11417-017-9255-8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Xiao, Y., Guan, J., & Xu, L. (2017). Wildlife cybercrime in China: E-commerce and monitoring in 2016. Retrieved from https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/2108/briefing-online_wildlife_trade-2016.pdf.
  86. Xiao, Y., & Wang, J. (2015, March). Moving target: Tracking online sales of illegal wildlife products in China. Briefing Paper. Retrieved from TRAFFIC. http://static1.1.sqspcdn.com/static/f/157301/26245505/1432122394320/China-monitoring-report.pdf.
  87. Zhou, Q. (2016). China’s plans for near complete ban on ivory business ‘well received’. Retrieved from https://www.caixinglobal.com/2016-03-25/101011780.html.

Copyright information

© The Author(s) 2019

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.City University of Hong KongKowloon TongHong Kong

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options