Abstract
The mechanics of the overhead motions have many similarities; however there are also many important details to each specific motion. Therefore the mechanics of the baseball pitch, tennis serve, and freestyle swimming motion will be covered in detail. Many new ideas and theories on the generation of energy and the identification of alterations among these motions will be discussed to aid clinicians in the evaluation process. This will allow clinicians to better understand injury mechanisms and treat these athletes with a more comprehensive approach.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Fleisig GS, Diffendaffer AZ, Ivey B, Aune KT. Do baseball pitchers improve mechanics after biomechanical evaluations? Sports Biomech. 2017;17:1ā8. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2017.1340508.
Cashaback JG, Cluff T. Increase in joint stability at the expense of energy efficiency correlates with force variability during a fatiguing task. J Biomech. 2015;48(4):621ā6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2014.12.053.
Crotin RL, Kozlowski K, Horvath P, Ramsey DK. Altered stride length in response to increasing exertion among baseball pitchers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(3):565ā71. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182a79cd9.
Escamilla RF, Barrentine SW, Fleisig GS, Zheng N, Takada Y, Kingsley D, Andrews JR. Pitching biomechanics as a pitcher approaches muscular fatigue during a simulated baseball game. Am J Sports Med. 2007;35(1):23ā33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546506293025.
Komar J, Lepretre PM, Alberty M, Vantorre J, Fernandes RJ, Hellard P, Chollet D, Seifert L. Effect of increasing energy cost on arm coordination in elite sprint swimmers. Hum Mov Sci. 2012;31(3):620ā9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2011.07.011.
Rich RL, Struminger AH, Tucker WS, Munkasy BA, Joyner AB, Buckley TA. Scapular upward-rotation deficits after acute fatigue in tennis players. J Athl Train. 2016;51(6):474ā9. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-51.7.05.
Fleisig GS, Andrews JR, Dillman CJ, Escamilla RF. Kinetics of baseball pitching with implications about injury mechanisms. Am J Sports Med. 1995;23(2):233ā9. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354659502300218.
Sabick MB, Torry MR, Lawton RL, Hawkins RJ. Valgus torque in youth baseball pitchers: a biomechanical study. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2004;13(3):349ā55. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1058274604000308.
Urbin MA, Fleisig GS, Abebe A, Andrews JR. Associations between timing in the baseball pitch and shoulder kinetics, elbow kinetics, and ball speed. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(2):336ā42. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546512467952.
Werner SL, Guido JA Jr, Stewart GW, McNeice RP, VanDyke T, Jones DG. Relationships between throwing mechanics and shoulder distraction in collegiate baseball pitchers. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2007;16(1):37ā42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2006.05.007.
Scovazzo ML, Browne A, Pink M, Jobe FW, Kerrigan J. The painful shoulder during freestyle swimming. An electromyographic cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. Am J Sports Med. 1991;19(6):577ā82. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354659101900604.
Wadsworth DJ, Bullock-Saxton JE. Recruitment patterns of the scapular rotator muscles in freestyle swimmers with subacromial impingement. Int J Sports Med. 1997;18(8):618ā24. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-972692.
Yanai T, Hay JG, Miller GF. Shoulder impingement in front-crawl swimming: I. A method to identify impingement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(1):21ā9.
Borsa PA, Laudner KG, Sauers EL. Mobility and stability adaptations in the shoulder of the overhead athlete: a theoretical and evidence-based perspective. Sports Med. 2008;38(1):17ā36.
Brindle TJ, Nyland J, Shapiro R, Caborn DN, Stine R. Shoulder proprioception: latent muscle reaction times. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(10):1394ā8.
Chandler TJ, Kibler WB, Uhl TL, Wooten B, Kiser A, Stone E. Flexibility comparisons of junior elite tennis players to other athletes. Am J Sports Med. 1990;18(2):134ā6.
Crawford SD, Sauers EL. Glenohumeral joint laxity and stiffness in the functional throwing position of high school baseball pitchers. J Athl Train. 2006;41(1):52ā9.
Forthomme B, Crielaard JM, Croisier JL. Scapular positioning in athleteās shoulder : particularities, clinical measurements and implications. Sports Med. 2008;38(5):369ā86.
Kaplan KM, Elattrache NS, Jobe FW, Morrey BF, Kaufman KR, Hurd WJ. Comparison of shoulder range of motion, strength, and playing time in uninjured high school baseball pitchers who reside in warm- and cold-weather climates. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(2):320ā8.. doi:0363546510382230 [pii]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546510382230.
Laudner KG, Lynall R, Meister K. Shoulder adaptations among pitchers and position players over the course of a competitive baseball season. Clin J Sport Med. 2012;23:184. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e31826ab928.
Myers JB, Laudner KG, Pasquale MR, Bradley JP, Lephart SM. Scapular position and orientation in throwing athletes. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33(2):263ā71.
Reinold MM, Wilk KE, Macrina LC, Sheheane C, Dun S, Fleisig GS, Crenshaw K, Andrews JR. Changes in shoulder and elbow passive range of motion after pitching in professional baseball players. Am J Sports Med. 2008;36(3):523ā7.
Thomas SJ, Swanik CB, Kaminski TW, Higginson JS, Swanik KA, Bartolozzi AR, Nazarian LN. Humeral retroversion and its association with posterior capsule thickness in collegiate baseball players. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2011;21:910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2011.05.028.
Thomas SJ, Swanik KA, Swanik C, Huxel KC. Glenohumeral rotation and scapular position adaptations after a single high school female sports season. J Athl Train. 2009;44(3):230ā7.
Thomas SJ, Swanik CB, Higginson JS, Kaminski TW, Swanik KA, Bartolozzi AR, Abboud JA, Nazarian LN. A bilateral comparison of posterior capsule thickness and its correlation with glenohumeral range of motion and scapular upward rotation in collegiate baseball players. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2011;20(5):708ā16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2010.08.031.
Thomas SJ, Swanik KA, Swanik CB, Huxel KC, Kelly JD. Internal rotation and scapular position changes following competitive high school baseball. J Sport Rehabil. 2010;19(2):125ā35.
Thomas SJ, Swanik KA, Swanik CB, Kelly JD. Internal rotation and scapular position differences: a comparison of collegiate and high school baseball players. J Athl Train. 2010;45(1):44ā50. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-45.1.44.
Garrison JC, Cole MA, Conway JE, Macko MJ, Thigpen C, Shanley E. Shoulder range of motion deficits in baseball players with an ulnar collateral ligament tear. Am J Sports Med. 2012;40(11):2597ā603. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546512459175.
Shanley E, Rauh MJ, Michener LA, Ellenbecker TS, Garrison JC, Thigpen CA. Shoulder range of motion measures as risk factors for shoulder and elbow injuries in high school softball and baseball players. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(9):1997ā2006. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546511408876.
Bogenschutz ED, Smith HD, Warden SJ. Midhumerus adaptation in fast-pitch softballers and the effect of throwing mechanics. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(9):1698ā706. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182134e4f.
Shanley E, Rauh MJ, Michener LA, Ellenbecker TS. Incidence of injuries in high school softball and baseball players. J Athl Train. 2011;46(6):648ā54.
Wilk KE, Macrina L, Porterfield R, Harker P, McMichael CS, Andrews JR. Loss of Internal Rotation and the Correlation to Shoulder Injuries in Professional Baseball Pitchers. In: American Orthopeadic Society of Sports Medicine Annual Meeting, Orlando, FL, 2008.
Wilk KE, Macrina LC, Fleisig GS, Porterfield R, Simpson CD 2nd, Harker P, Paparesta N, Andrews JR. Correlation of glenohumeral internal rotation deficit and total rotational motion to shoulder injuries in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39(2):329ā35. doi:0363546510384223 [pii]. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546510384223.
Borsa PA, Dover GC, Wilk KE, Reinold MM. Glenohumeral range of motion and stiffness in professional baseball pitchers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006;38(1):21ā6.
Borsa PA, Wilk KE, Jacobson JA, Scibek JS, Dover GC, Reinold MM, Andrews JR. Correlation of range of motion and glenohumeral translation in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2005;33(9):1392ā9.
Thomas SJ, Swanik KA, Swanik CB, JDt K. Internal rotation deficits affect scapular positioning in baseball players. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2010;468(6):1551ā7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-009-1124-z.
Noonan TJ, Thigpen CA, Bailey LB, Wyland DJ, Kissenberth M, Hawkins RJ, Shanley E. Humeral torsion as a risk factor for shoulder and elbow injury in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(9):2214ā9. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546516648438.
Noonan TJ, Shanley E, Bailey LB, Wyland DJ, Kissenberth MJ, Hawkins RJ, Thigpen CA. Professional pitchers with Glenohumeral Internal Rotation Deficit (GIRD) display greater humeral Retrotorsion than pitchers without GIRD. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(6):1448ā54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515575020.
Shanley E, Thigpen CA, Clark JC, Wyland DJ, Hawkins RJ, Noonan TJ, Kissenberth MJ. Changes in passive range of motion and development of glenohumeral internal rotation deficit (GIRD) in the professional pitching shoulder between spring training in two consecutive years. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2012;21(11):1605ā12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2011.11.035.
Cools AM, Witvrouw EE, Mahieu NN, Danneels LA. Isokinetic scapular muscle performance in overhead athletes with and without impingement symptoms. J Athl Train. 2005;40(2):104ā10.
Donatelli R, Ellenbecker TS, Ekedahl SR, Wilkes JS, Kocher K, Adam J. Assessment of shoulder strength in professional baseball pitchers. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2000;30(9):544ā51.
Birkelo J, Padua DA, Guskiewicz K, Karas S. Prolonged overhead throwing alters scapular kinematics and scapular muscle strength. J Athl Train. 2003;38:s-10.
Laudner KG, Stanek JM, Meister K. The relationship of periscapular strength on scapular upward rotation in professional baseball pitchers. J Sport Rehabil. 2008;17(2):95ā105.
Merolla G, De Santis E, Sperling JW, Campi F, Paladini P, Porcellini G. Infraspinatus strength assessment before and after scapular muscles rehabilitation in professional volleyball players with scapular dyskinesis. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2010;19(8):1256ā64. doi:S1058-2746(10)00045-5 [pii]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2010.01.022.
Hurd WJ, Kaufman KR. Glenohumeral rotational motion and strength and baseball pitching biomechanics. J Athl Train. 2012;47(3):247ā56. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-47.3.10.
Gandhi J, ElAttrache NS, Kaufman KR, Hurd WJ. Voluntary activation deficits of the infraspinatus present as a consequence of pitching-induced fatigue. J Shoulder Elbow Surg. 2012;21(5):625ā30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2011.04.012.
Myers JB, Guskiewicz KM, Schneider RA, Prentice WE. Proprioception and neuromuscular control of the shoulder after muscle fatigue. J Athl Train. 1999;34(4):362ā7.
Myers JB, Lephart SM. The role of the sensorimotor system in the athletic shoulder. J Athl Train. 2000;35(3):351ā63.
Thomas SJ, Swanik CB, Higginson JS, Kaminski TW, Swanik KA, JDt K, Nazarian LN. Neuromuscular and stiffness adaptations in division I collegiate baseball players. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2013;23(1):102ā9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.07.005.
Camp CL, Dines JS, van der List JP, Conte S, Conway J, Altchek DW, Coleman SH, Pearle AD. Summative report on time out of play for major and minor league baseball: an analysis of 49,955 injuries from 2011 through 2016. Am J Sports Med. 2018;46(7):1727ā32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546518765158.
Werner SL, Guido JA, Delude NA, Stewart GW, Greenfield JH, Meister K. Throwing arm dominance in collegiate baseball pitching: a biomechanical study. Am J Sports Med. 2010;38(8):1606ā10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546510365511.
Dillman CJ, Fleisig GS, Andrews JR. Biomechanics of pitching with emphasis upon shoulder kinematics. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1993;18(2):402ā8. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1993.18.2.402.
Pappas AM, Zawacki RM, Sullivan TJ. Biomechanics of baseball pitching. A preliminary report. Am J Sports Med. 1985;13(4):216ā22. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354658501300402.
Ramsey DK, Crotin RL. Stride length: the impact on propulsion and bracing ground reaction force in overhand throwing. Sports Biomech. 2018:1ā18. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2018.1442872.
Fleisig GS, Diffendaffer AZ, Ivey B, Aune KT, Laughlin T, Fortenbaugh D, Bolt B, Lucas W, Moore KD, Dugas JR. Changes in youth baseball pitching biomechanics: a 7-year longitudinal study. Am J Sports Med. 2018;46(1):44ā51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546517732034.
Fry KE, Pipkin A, Wittman K, Hetzel S, Sherry M. Youth baseball pitching stride length: normal values and correlation with field testing. Sports Health. 2017;9(3):205ā9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738116679815.
Keeley DW, Oliver GD, Dougherty CP, Torry MR. Lower body predictors of glenohumeral compressive force in high school baseball pitchers. J Appl Biomech. 2015;31(3):181ā8. https://doi.org/10.1123/jab.2011-0229.
Ramsey DK, Crotin RL. Effect of stride length on overarm throwing delivery: part II: an angular momentum response. Hum Mov Sci. 2016;46:30ā8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2015.11.021.
Ramsey DK, Crotin RL, White S. Effect of stride length on overarm throwing delivery: a linear momentum response. Hum Mov Sci. 2014;38:185ā96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2014.08.012.
Chaudhari AM, McKenzie CS, Pan X, Onate JA. Lumbopelvic control and days missed because of injury in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(11):2734ā40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546514545861.
Culiver A, Garrison JC, Creed KM, Conway JE, Goto S, Werner S. Correlation among Y balance test-lower quarter composite scores, hip musculoskeletal characteristics, and pitching kinematics in NCAA division I baseball pitchers. J Sport Rehabil. 2018:1ā21. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2017-0111.
Hirashima M, Kadota H, Sakurai S, Kudo K, Ohtsuki T. Sequential muscle activity and its functional role in the upper extremity and trunk during overarm throwing. J Sports Sci. 2002;20(4):301ā10. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404102753576071.
Putnam CA. Sequential motions of body segments in striking and throwing skills: descriptions and explanations. J Biomech. 1993;26(Suppl 1):125ā35.
Iliopoulos E, Galanis N, Iosifidis M, Zafeiridis A, Papadopoulos P, Potoupnis M, Geladas N, Vrabas IS, Kirkos J. Anterior cruciate ligament deficiency reduces walking economy in ācopersā and ānon-copersā. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2017;25(5):1403ā11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00167-015-3709-2.
Kwon YU. Static postural stability in chronic ankle instability, an ankle sprain and healthy ankles. Int J Sports Med. 2018;39:625. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-0608-4552.
Kim KM, Best TM, Aiyer A. How do athletes with chronic ankle instability suffer from impaired balance? An update on neurophysiological mechanisms. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2017;16(5):309ā11. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000407.
Valovich McLeod TC, Hale TD. Vestibular and balance issues following sport-related concussion. Brain Inj. 2015;29(2):175ā84. https://doi.org/10.3109/02699052.2014.965206.
Granacher U, Lacroix A, Muehlbauer T, Roettger K, Gollhofer A. Effects of core instability strength training on trunk muscle strength, spinal mobility, dynamic balance and functional mobility in older adults. Gerontology. 2013;59(2):105ā13. https://doi.org/10.1159/000343152.
Crotin RL, Bhan S, Ramsey DK. An inferential investigation into how stride length influences temporal parameters within the baseball pitching delivery. Hum Mov Sci. 2015;41:127ā35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2015.03.005.
Werner SL, Suri M, Guido JA Jr, Meister K, Jones DG. Relationships between ball velocity and throwing mechanics in collegiate baseball pitchers. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2008;17(6):905ā8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2008.04.002.
Kibler WB. Biomechanical analysis of the shoulder during tennis activities. Clin Sports Med. 1995;14(1):79ā85.
Erickson BJ, Sgori T, Chalmers PN, Vignona P, Lesniak M, Bush-Joseph CA, Verma NN, Romeo AA. The impact of fatigue on baseball pitching mechanics in adolescent male pitchers. Arthroscopy. 2016;32(5):762ā71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2015.11.051.
Elliott B, Fleisig G, Nicholls R, Escamilia R. Technique effects on upper limb loading in the tennis serve. J Sci Med Sport. 2003;6(1):76ā87.
Fleisig GS, Barrentine SW, Zheng N, Escamilla RF, Andrews JR. Kinematic and kinetic comparison of baseball pitching among various levels of development. J Biomech. 1999;32(12):1371ā5.
Nissen CW, Westwell M, Ounpuu S, Patel M, Tate JP, Pierz K, Burns JP, Bicos J. Adolescent baseball pitching technique: a detailed three-dimensional biomechanical analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(8):1347ā57. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e318064c88e.
Endo Y, Sakamoto M. Correlation of shoulder and elbow injuries with muscle tightness, core stability, and balance by longitudinal measurements in junior high school baseball players. J Phys Ther Sci. 2014;26(5):689ā93. https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.26.689.
Davis JT, Limpisvasti O, Fluhme D, Mohr KJ, Yocum LA, Elattrache NS, Jobe FW. The effect of pitching biomechanics on the upper extremity in youth and adolescent baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2009;37(8):1484ā91. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546509340226.
Campbell BM, Stodden DF, Nixon MK. Lower extremity muscle activation during baseball pitching. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(4):964ā71. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181cb241b.
Aguinaldo AL, Buttermore J, Chambers H. Effects of upper trunk rotation on shoulder joint torque among baseball pitchers of various levels. J Appl Biomech. 2007;23(1):42ā51.
Fleisig GS, Hsu WK, Fortenbaugh D, Cordover A, Press JM. Trunk axial rotation in baseball pitching and batting. Sports Biomech. 2013;12(4):324ā33. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2013.838693.
Oyama S, Yu B, Blackburn JT, Padua DA, Li L, Myers JB. Effect of excessive contralateral trunk tilt on pitching biomechanics and performance in high school baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(10):2430ā8. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546513496547.
Takagi Y, Oi T, Tanaka H, Inui H, Fujioka H, Tanaka J, Yoshiya S, Nobuhara K. Increased horizontal shoulder abduction is associated with an increase in shoulder joint load in baseball pitching. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2014;23(12):1757ā62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2014.03.005.
Werner SL, Gill TJ, Murray TA, Cook TD, Hawkins RJ. Relationships between throwing mechanics and shoulder distraction in professional baseball pitchers. Am J Sports Med. 2001;29(3):354ā8. https://doi.org/10.1177/03635465010290031701.
Nieminen H, Niemi J, Takala EP, Viikari-Juntura E. Load-sharing patterns in the shoulder during isometric flexion tasks. J Biomech. 1995;28(5):555ā66.
Thomas SJ, Swanik CB, Kaminski TW, Higginson JS, Swanik KA, Bartolozzi AR, Nazarian LN. Humeral retroversion and its association with posterior capsule thickness in collegiate baseball players. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2012;21(7):910ā6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jse.2011.05.028.
Lintner D, Noonan TJ, Kibler WB. Injury patterns and biomechanics of the athleteās shoulder. Clin Sports Med. 2008;27(4):527ā51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2008.07.007.
Kibler WB, Wilkes T, Sciascia A. Mechanics and pathomechanics in the overhead athlete. Clin Sports Med. 2013;32(4):637ā51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2013.07.003.
Bahamonde RE. Changes in angular momentum during the tennis serve. J Sports Sci. 2000;18(8):579ā92. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410050082297.
Gordon BJ, Dapena J. Contributions of joint rotations to racquet speed in the tennis serve. J Sports Sci. 2006;24(1):31ā49. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410400022045.
Reid M, Elliott B, Alderson J. Shoulder joint loading in the high performance flat and kick tennis serves. Br J Sports Med. 2007;41(12):884ā9; discussion 889. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2007.036657.
Martin C, Bideau B, Ropars M, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Upper limb joint kinetic analysis during tennis serve: assessment of competitive level on efficiency and injury risks. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2014;24(4):700ā7. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12043.
Abrams GD, Harris AH, Andriacchi TP, Safran MR. Biomechanical analysis of three tennis serve types using a markerless system. Br J Sports Med. 2014;48(4):339ā42. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091371.
Abrams GD, Sheets AL, Andriacchi TP, Safran MR. Review of tennis serve motion analysis and the biomechanics of three serve types with implications for injury. Sports Biomech. 2011;10(4):378ā90. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763141.2011.629302.
Kovacs M, Ellenbecker T. An 8-stage model for evaluating the tennis serve: implications for performance enhancement and injury prevention. Sports Health. 2011;3(6):504ā13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738111414175.
Martin C, Bideau B, Bideau N, Nicolas G, Delamarche P, Kulpa R. Energy flow analysis during the tennis serve: comparison between injured and noninjured tennis players. Am J Sports Med. 2014;42(11):2751ā60. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546514547173.
Reid M, Elliott B, Alderson J. Lower-limb coordination and shoulder joint mechanics in the tennis serve. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(2):308ā15. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e31815c6d61.
Stickler L, Finley M, Gulgin H. Relationship between hip and core strength and frontal plane alignment during a single leg squat. Phys Ther Sport. 2015;16(1):66ā71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ptsp.2014.05.002.
Marshall RN, Elliott BC. Long-axis rotation: the missing link in proximal-to-distal segmental sequencing. J Sports Sci. 2000;18(4):247ā54. https://doi.org/10.1080/026404100364983.
Ellenbecker TS, Roetert EP. Testing isokinetic muscular fatigue of shoulder internal and external rotation in elite junior tennis players. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1999;29(5):275ā81. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1999.29.5.275.
Alizadehkhaiyat O, Fisher AC, Kemp GJ, Frostick SP. Strength and fatigability of selected muscles in upper limb: assessing muscle imbalance relevant to tennis elbow. J Electromyogr Kinesiol. 2007;17(4):428ā36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jelekin.2006.04.007.
Mihata T, McGarry MH, Neo M, Ohue M, Lee TQ. Effect of anterior capsular laxity on horizontal abduction and forceful internal impingement in a cadaveric model of the throwing shoulder. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43(7):1758ā63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515582025.
Kaplan LD, McMahon PJ, Towers J, Irrgang JJ, Rodosky MW. Internal impingement: findings on magnetic resonance imaging and arthroscopic evaluation. Arthroscopy. 2004;20(7):701ā4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2004.06.006.
Fleisig G, Nicholls R, Elliott B, Escamilla R. Kinematics used by world class tennis players to produce high-velocity serves. Sports Biomech. 2003;2(1):51ā64. https://doi.org/10.1080/14763140308522807.
Rogowski I, Creveaux T, Sevrez V, Cheze L, Dumas R. How does the scapula move during the tennis serve? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47(7):1444ā9. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000000543.
Myers NL, Kibler WB, Lamborn L, Smith BJ, English T, Jacobs C, Uhl TL. Reliability and validity of a biomechanically based analysis method for the tennis serve. Int J Sports Phys Ther. 2017;12(3):437ā49.
Gourgoulis V, Boli A, Aggeloussis N, Antoniou P, Toubekis A, Mavromatis G. The influence of the handās acceleration and the relative contribution of drag and lift forces in front crawl swimming. J Sports Sci. 2015;33(7):696ā712. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2014.962571.
Loebbecke A, Mittal R. Comparative analysis of thrust production for distinct arm-pull styles in competitive swimming. J Biomech Eng. 2012;134(7):074501. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4007028.
Gourgoulis V, Aggeloussis N, Mavridis G, Boli A, Kasimatis P, Vezos N, Toubekis A, Antoniou P, Mavrommatis G. Acute effect of front crawl sprint resisted swimming on the propulsive forces of the hand. J Appl Biomech. 2013;29(1):98ā104.
Gourgoulis V, Antoniou P, Aggeloussis N, Mavridis G, Kasimatis P, Vezos N, Boli A, Mavromatis G. Kinematic characteristics of the stroke and orientation of the hand during front crawl resisted swimming. J Sports Sci. 2010;28(11):1165ā73. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2010.507251.
Pink M, Perry J, Browne A, Scovazzo ML, Kerrigan J. The normal shoulder during freestyle swimming. An electromyographic and cinematographic analysis of twelve muscles. Am J Sports Med. 1991;19(6):569ā76. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354659101900603.
Yanai T, Hay JG. Shoulder impingement in front-crawl swimming: II. Analysis of stroking technique. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(1):30ā40.
Su KP, Johnson MP, Gracely EJ, Karduna AR. Scapular rotation in swimmers with and without impingement syndrome: practice effects. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(7):1117ā23.
Suito H, Nunome H, Ikegami Y. A quantitative evaluation of the high elbow technique in front crawl. J Sports Sci. 2017;35(13):1264ā9. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1221517.
Sein ML, Walton J, Linklater J, Appleyard R, Kirkbride B, Kuah D, Murrell GA. Shoulder pain in elite swimmers: primarily due to swim-volume-induced supraspinatus tendinopathy. Br J Sports Med. 2010;44(2):105ā13. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2008.047282.
Nuber GW, Jobe FW, Perry J, Moynes DR, Antonelli D. Fine wire electromyography analysis of muscles of the shoulder during swimming. Am J Sports Med. 1986;14(1):7ā11. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354658601400102.
Chao S, Thomas S, Yucha D, JDt K, Driban J, Swanik K. An electromyographic assessment of the ābear hugā: an examination for the evaluation of the subscapularis muscle. Arthroscopy. 2008;24(11):1265ā70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2008.01.022.
Tokish JM, Decker MJ, Ellis HB, Torry MR, Hawkins RJ. The belly-press test for the physical examination of the subscapularis muscle: electromyographic validation and comparison to the lift-off test. J Shoulder Elb Surg. 2003;12(5):427ā30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1058274603000478.
Garofalo R, Karlsson J, Nordenson U, Cesari E, Conti M, Castagna A. Anterior-superior internal impingement of the shoulder: an evidence-based review. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2010;18(12):1688ā93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00167-010-1232-z.
Balke M, Banerjee M, Greshake O, Hoeher J, Bouillon B, Liem D. The coracohumeral distance in shoulders with traumatic and degenerative subscapularis tendon tears. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(1):198ā201. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546515611653.
Lauer J, Vilas-Boas JP, Rouard AH. Shoulder joint kinetics and dynamics during underwater forward arm elevation. J Biomech. 2018;71:144ā50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2018.01.043.
Richardson AB, Jobe FW, Collins HR. The shoulder in competitive swimming. Am J Sports Med. 1980;8(3):159ā63. https://doi.org/10.1177/036354658000800303.
Guth EH. A comparison of cervical rotation in age-matched adolescent competitive swimmers and healthy males. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1995;21(1):21ā7. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.1995.21.1.21.
Katirji B, Hardy RW Jr. Classic neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome in a competitive swimmer: a true scalenus anticus syndrome. Muscle Nerve. 1995;18(2):229ā33. https://doi.org/10.1002/mus.880180213.
Herbst KA, Miller LS. Symptomatic axillopectoral muscle in a swimmer: a case report. Am J Sports Med. 2013;41(6):1400ā3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546513486768.
Yanai T. Buoyancy is the primary source of generating bodyroll in front-crawl swimming. J Biomech. 2004;37(5):605ā12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2003.10.004.
Weston M, Hibbs AE, Thompson KG, Spears IR. Isolated core training improves sprint performance in national-level junior swimmers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015;10(2):204ā10. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0488.
Zamparo P, Pendergast DR, Termin B, Minetti AE. How fins affect the economy and efficiency of human swimming. J Exp Biol. 2002;205(Pt 17):2665ā76.
Gourgoulis V, Boli A, Aggeloussis N, Toubekis A, Antoniou P, Kasimatis P, Vezos N, Michalopoulou M, Kambas A, Mavromatis G. The effect of leg kick on sprint front crawl swimming. J Sports Sci. 2014;32(3):278ā89. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2013.823224.
Cortesi M, Gatta G. Effect of the Swimmerās head position on passive drag. J Hum Kinet. 2015;49:37ā45. https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0106.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
Ā© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Thomas, S.J. (2019). Mechanics of theĀ Overhead Motion. In: Kibler, W., Sciascia, A. (eds) Mechanics, Pathomechanics and Injury in the Overhead Athlete. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12775-6_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12775-6_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-12774-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-12775-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)