Abstract
Constructed languages (which are also sometimes called ‘artificial’ or ‘invented’ languages) are those which have been deliberately created by human beings. Such languages have been created for many different reasons, but the most common were designed to facilitate communication between speakers of different languages. By far the most successful of these constructed languages has been Esperanto, a language created in the late nineteenth century. In spite of is successes, Esperanto is still not uncommonly rejected as being somehow non-legitimate, less than a language that emerged in an unplanned way. In this chapter, an overview of the history of constructed languages generally, and of Esperanto in particular, will be presented, and the case will be made for the legitimacy of Esperanto.
This quote is attributed to Spike Mulligan, the British comedian and actor. It was intended to be humorous, since Milligan was assuming that there was no such thing as a native speaker of Esperanto. In fact, although small in number, there actually are such speakers, called denaskuloj in Esperanto (see Corsetti, Pinto, & Tolomeo, 2004).
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Notes
- 1.
The use of the word ‘artificial’ to describe constructed languages, although not uncommon, is actually problematic, and is taken by some speakers of Esperanto, for instance, to be pejorative. See Gobbo (2011, p. 6).
- 2.
In fact, the origins of Balaibalan are fairly obscure. It may also have been created by Fazlallah Astarabadi in the fourteenth century CE, or by his followers in the fifteenth century CE, or even by the Turkish Sufi Muhyî-i Güsenî in the sixteenth century.
- 3.
Technically, Balaibalan was written in the Ottoman version of the Arabic script.
- 4.
I have written about Volapük in the past tense here, which is perhaps not entirely accurate: even today, there are a tiny number of speakers of the language. Paul LaFarge, in 2000, estimated that there were about 20 speakers of Volapük in the world. Further, there is in fact an unbroken succession of Cifals (Volapük language ‘Leaders’, which began with Fr. Schleyer himself) (see also Golden, 1997).
- 5.
Perhaps not surprisingly, in Esperanto the word volapukaĵo refers to something completely incomprehensible or that makes no sense (as in ‘Ĝi estas por mi volapukaĵo’, from the Proverbaro de Esperanto).
- 6.
Claims about the ‘Jewish’ nature of Esperanto are based on a number of factors. Zamenhof himself was Jewish, and a not insignificant number of speakers of the language (a disproportionate percentage probably) are also Jewish. In addition, as we shall see, elements of Esperanto were indeed incorporated from Yiddish (see Gold, 1980, 1982). In Nazi Germany, Esperanto was dismissed both for its ‘universal’ nature and its perceived ties to Judaism, and as ‘parasitic’, while in the USSR it was condemned as ‘cosmopolitan’ (another euphemism for ‘Jewish’).
- 7.
I am grateful to Pádraig Ó Riagáin, of the Institiúid Teangeolaiochta Éireann (the Linguistics Institute of Ireland), for pointing out, in the case of Irish, the valuable distinction between a ‘speech community’ and a ‘speech network’, which seems to me to apply just as well (perhaps even better) to the case of Esperanto than it does to the case of Irish.
- 8.
There is a potential ambiguity in English here. The meaning of the term here is ‘to be being drunk’, as in ‘La akvo trinkiĝas’ ‘The water is being drunk’ or ‘La akvo trinkiĝis’ ‘The water was being drunk’. Thus, trinkiĝadi means ‘to keep being drunk’ (i.e., ‘consumed by drinking’). This has nothing whatsoever to do with ‘drunk’ as in ‘inebriated’, which would be expressed in Esperanto using the word ‘ebria’.
- 9.
- 10.
It is interesting to note, however, that in spite of the explicitly articulated concern about matters of linguistic inequality, there is nonetheless a comparable phenomenon within the Esperanto movement itself. As Jane Edwards has observed, “The fact is, that, given the nature of the Esperanto movement, excellent Esperanto is one of the modes of establishing oneself as a person of importance in the movement … In fact, generally speaking, the qualifications for leadership in the Esperanto movement are good Esperanto, a willingness to work for the propagation of the language, and to have no outward signs of being certifiably insane” (1993, p. 29).
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Appendix A: The ‘Sixteen Rules’ of Esperanto (From Zamenhof, 1963 [1905])
Appendix A: The ‘Sixteen Rules’ of Esperanto (From Zamenhof, 1963 [1905])
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1.
There is no indefinite, and only one definite, article, la, for all genders, numbers, and cases.
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2.
Nouns are formed by adding -o to the root. For the plural, -j must be added to the singular. There are two cases: the nominative and the objective (accusative). The root with the added -o is the nominative, the objective adds an -n after the -o. Other cases are formed by prepositions.
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3.
Adjectives are formed by adding -a to the root. The numbers and cases are the same as in nouns. The comparative degree is formed by prefixing pli ‘more’; the superlative by plej ‘most’. ‘Than’ is rendered by ol.
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4.
The cardinal numerals do not change their forms for the different cases. They are: unu, du, tri, kvar, kvin, ses, sep, ok, naŭ, dek, cent, mil. The tens and hundreds are formed by simple junction of the numerals. Ordinals are formed by adding the adjectival -a to the cardinals. Multiplicatives add the suffix -obl-; fractionals add the suffix -on-; collective numerals add -op-; for distributives the word po is used. The numerals can also be used as nouns or adverbs with the appropriate endings.
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5.
The personal pronouns are: mi, vi, li, ŝi, ĝi (for inanimate objects and animals), si (reflexive), ni, vi, ili, oni (indefinite). Possessive pronouns are formed by suffixing the adjectival termination. The declension of pronouns is identical with that of nouns.
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6.
The verb does not change its form for numbers or persons. The present tense ends in -as, the past in -is, the future in -os, the conditional in -us, the imperative in -u, the infinitive in -i. Active participles, both adjectival and adverbial, are formed by adding, in the present, -ant-, in the past -int-, and in the future -ont-. The passive forms are, respectively, -at-, -it-, and -ot-. All forms of the passive are rendered by the respective forms of the verb esti (to be) and the passive participle of the required verb. The preposition used is de.
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7.
Adverbs are formed by adding -e to the root. The degrees of comparison are the same as in adjectives.
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8.
All prepositions take the nominative case.
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9.
Every word is to be read exactly as written.
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10.
The accent falls on the penultimate syllable.
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11.
Compound words are formed by simple junction of roots (the principal word standing last). Grammatical terminations are regarded as independent words.
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12.
If there is one negative in a clause, a second is not admissible.
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13.
To show direction, words take the termination of the objective case.
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14.
Every preposition has a definite fixed meaning; but if it is necessary to use a preposition, and it is not quite evident from the sense which it should be, the word je is used, which has no definite meaning. Instead of je, the objective without a preposition may be used.
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15.
The so-called foreign words (words that the greater number of languages have derived from the same source) undergo no change in the international language, beyond conforming to its system of orthography.
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16.
The final vowel of the noun and the article may be dropped and replaced with an apostrophe.
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Reagan, T. (2019). Created and Constructed Languages: ‘I can speak Esperanto like a native’. In: Linguistic Legitimacy and Social Justice. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10967-7_7
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