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European Union Law and Sporting Nationality: Dangerous Liaison?

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Sporting Nationality in the Context of European Union Law

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Law ((BRIEFSLAW))

Abstract

In this chapter, I divide rules determining conditions of athletes’

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492.

  2. 2.

    Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (Brussels: European Commission 2010): 228.

  3. 3.

    Ibid., 228.

  4. 4.

    The US swimmer Ryan Lochte might not share the same opinion. In the 200 m individual medley final at the 2015 World Aquatics Championships in Kazan, Russia, he useda new turn technique when he pushed off on his back and kicked underwater for ten meters to start his freestyle leg. He then surfaced and swam what swimmers know as freestyle. The rules allow this turnover in freestyle-only races and the officials discussed the possibility of disqualifying Lochte in the 200 m individual medley race. In the end, the officials did not disqualify Lochte who therefore won his fourth-straight world title in this discipline. However, FINA later made this new turn illegal in individual medley races. If Lochte were disqualified, he would be also deprived of the gold medal and related prize money and the sporting rule in questions would have an economic impact on him (“FINA Officially Makes “Ryan Lochte Turn” Illegal In IM Races”, Swimming World, 8 September 2015, retrieved 31 October 2018).

  5. 5.

    Exner (2013b), pp. 1039.

  6. 6.

    McCutcheon (2001), p. 123.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., p. 133.

  8. 8.

    Hafner (2012), p. 232.

  9. 9.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492, paragraph 27.

  10. 10.

    Case C-135/08, Rottmann, [2010] EU:C:2010:104, paragraph 39.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., paragraph 41. In the paragraph 42 of this judgment, the ECJ ruled that: “It is clear that the situation of a citizen of the Union who, like the applicant in the main proceedings, is faced with a decision withdrawing his naturalisation, adopted by the authorities of one Member State, and placing him, after he has lost the nationality of another Member State that he originally possessed, in a position capable of causing him to lose the status conferred by Article 17 EC and the rights attaching thereto falls, by reason of its nature and its consequences, within the ambit of European Union law.

  12. 12.

    Ibid.

  13. 13.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492, paragraph 26; see also Case C-13/76, Dona v. Mantero, [1976] EU:C:1976:115, paragraphs 14 and 15.

  14. 14.

    See, amongst others, Joined cases C-51/96 and C-191/97, Deliège, [2000] EU:C:2000:199, paragraph 64; Case C-176/96, Lehtonen and Castors Braine, [2000] EU:C:2000:201, paragraphs 4–50; Case C-415/93, Union royale belge des sociétés de football association and Others v. Bosman and Others, [1995] EU:C:1995:463, paragraph 96; Case C-325/08, Olympique Lyonnais, [2010] EU:C:2010:143, paragraph 34; see also Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (2010): 229–230.

  15. 15.

    Joined cases C-51/96 and C-191/97, Deliège, [2000] EU:C:2000:199, paragraph 64.

  16. 16.

    Case C-309/99, Wouters and Others, [2002] EU:C:2002:98.

  17. 17.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492, paragraphs 47, 54.

  18. 18.

    Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (2010): 228, 229.

  19. 19.

    See inter alia Case C-176/96, Lehtonen and Castors Braine, [2000] EU:C:2000:201. First, the ECJ assesses whether Mr Lehtonen and respective basketball rules fall within the scope of EU law (paragraphs 32–46). Thereafter, the existence of an obstacle to freedom of movement for workers is examined (paragraphs 47–50). Finally, the ECJ engages in exploring whether such a restriction can be justified (paragraphs 51–59); see also Case C-325/08, Olympique Lyonnais, [2010] EU:C:2010:143: scope (paragraphs 27–32), restriction (paragraphs 33–37), justification (paragraphs 38–50); Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492: scope (paragraphs 22–34), restriction (45, 54), justification (41–56).

  20. 20.

    Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (Brussels: European Commission, 2010).

  21. 21.

    Hafner (2012).

  22. 22.

    Exner (2013b), p. 1039.

  23. 23.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492, paragraphs 47, 54.

  24. 24.

    Case C-309/99, Wouters and Others, [2002] EU:C:2002:98.

  25. 25.

    Case C-519/04 P, Meca-Medina and Majcen v. Commission, [2006] EU:C:2006:492, paragraph 42; see also Case C-309/99, Wouters and Others, [2002] EU:C:2002:98, paragraph 97.

  26. 26.

    Ibid.

  27. 27.

    Gillon and Poli (2004), pp. 47–72.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

  28. 28.

    Hafner (2012), pp. 233–234.

  29. 29.

    Olympic Charter (2017), Bye-law 1 to Rule 41.

  30. 30.

    Hafner (2008b), p. 2.

  31. 31.

    CAS 2001/A/357, Nabokov & Russian Olympic Committee (ROC) & Russian Ice Hockey Federation (RIHF)/International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), [2002]; Reeb (Ed.) (2004b), p. 503; see also Hafner (2012), p. 233.

  32. 32.

    Olympic Charter (2017), Bye-law 1 to Rule 41.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    Goetschy (2007), p. 56.

  35. 35.

    Collomb (2011), p. 56.

  36. 36.

    CAS 92/80, B. v. International Basketball Federation (FIBA), [1993], Reeb (Ed.) (1998), p. 304.

  37. 37.

    Case C-415/93, Union royale belge des sociétés de football association and Others v. Bosman and Others, [1995] EU:C:1995:463, paragraph 106; see also Case C-325/08, Olympique Lyonnais, [2010] EU:C:2010:143, paragraph 39.

  38. 38.

    “Building communities: the role of sport“, speech of Tibor Navracsics, Commissioner for Education, Culture, Youth and Sport, Brussels, 9 September 2015.

  39. 39.

    Ibid.

  40. 40.

    Archambault and Artiaga (2004), p. 38. See also, for example, the movie Invictus (2009): The film tells the inspiring true story of how Nelson Mandela joined forces with the captain of South Africa's rugby team to help unite their country. Newly elected President Mandela knows his nation remains racially and economically divided in the wake of apartheid. Believing he can bring his people together through the universal language of sport, Mandela rallies South Africa's rugby team as they make their historic run to the 1995 Rugby World Cup.

  41. 41.

    The European Model of Sport, Consultation document of DG X, (1998): 5.

  42. 42.

    Ibid.

  43. 43.

    Desaunettes (2014), pp. 1–4.

  44. 44.

    At this point, I dare one personal remark. The Czech Republic recently experienced the flood of national identity when it celebrated the 100th anniversary of Czechoslovakia. From a long-term point of view, sport in general, and ice hockey in particular, are tools that bring the Czech nation together. Every year in May, the crowd that fills the whole Old Town Square in Prague cheers for the Czech national team in its pursuit of the world title at the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) World Championships. At that time, every Czech is proud of the Czech Republic and feels truly “Czech”, which cannot be unfortunately said about the national pride of Czechs in general. In other words, the Czech Republic is a good example of a country where sport fulfils its social role and helps in creating a national identity.

  45. 45.

    Hafner (2012), p. 234.

  46. 46.

    Wollmann et al. (2015), p. 318.

  47. 47.

    Hafner (2008b), p. 1.

  48. 48.

    McCutcheon (2001), p. 123.

  49. 49.

    World Rugby Regulations (2016), Explanatory guidelines on the implementation of regulation 8, Eligibility to play for national representative teams, Explanation 1.

  50. 50.

    Hafner (2012), p. 234.

  51. 51.

    Siekmann (2011), pp. 241–268.

  52. 52.

    Nafziger (2004), p. 133.

  53. 53.

    To this end see also Exner (2013a).

  54. 54.

    Lajous (2012), p. 296.

  55. 55.

    Olympic Charter (2017), Bye-law 2 to Rule 41. This provision further provides that “[t]his period may be reduced or even cancelled, with the agreement of the NOCs and [international federations] concerned, by the IOC Executive Board, which takes into account the circumstances of each case.

  56. 56.

    Van den Bogaert (2005), p. 358.

  57. 57.

    IIHF Statutes and Bylaws (2018–2022), bylaw 4.3.

  58. 58.

    IIHF Statutes and Bylaws (2018–2022), bylaw 4.3.

  59. 59.

    Czech Republic, Finland, Sweden and Russia.

  60. 60.

    Hafner (2008a), p. 3.

  61. 61.

    ITTF Handbook (2018), Rule 3.8.5: “A player shall not represent different Associations within a period of 3 years.”.

  62. 62.

    ITTF Handbook (2018), Rules 4.1.3.3.1, 4.2.3.5, 4.3.6.2.1, 4.4.6.2.1, 4.5.1.3.3, 4.6.1.3.3, 4.1.3.3.2, 4.3.6.2.2, 4.4.6.2.2, 4.1.3.3.3, 4.3.6.2.3, 4.4.6.2.3.

  63. 63.

    ITTF Handbook (2018), Rule 4.1.3.3.1.

  64. 64.

    Case C-415/93, Union royale belge des sociétés de football association and Others v. Bosman and Others, [1995] EU:C:1995:463; see also Study on the equal treatment of non-nationals in individual sports competitions (2010): 231.

  65. 65.

    Hafner (2012), p. 235; Hafner (2010), pp. 1–12; Latty (2007), p. 684; Mestre (2009), p. 78; Oswald and Hafner (2008), pp. 18–19.

  66. 66.

    Hafner (2008b), p. 1.

  67. 67.

    Ibid.

  68. 68.

    Ibid., p. 2.

  69. 69.

    Sports Reference, Becky Hammon, retrieved 31 October 2018.

  70. 70.

    FIBA Internal Regulations (2018), Book 3, Chapter 1, Article 21.a.

  71. 71.

    FIVB Sports Regulations (2016), Article 2.2.1.

  72. 72.

    Case C-136/78, Ministère public v. Auer, [1979] EU:C:1979:34, paragraph. 28.

  73. 73.

    Hafner (2012), p. 235.

  74. 74.

    CAS 98/2009, Spanish Basketball Federation (FEB)/International Basketball Federation (FIBA), [1999], Reeb (Ed.) (2002), p. 503; AS 98/215, International Baseball Association (IBA), Advisory Opinion, [1999], Reeb (Ed.) (2002), p. 701, M. Reeb, “La nationalité dans la jurisprudence du TAS” in D. Oswald (Ed.) (2004), pp. 83–136.‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

  75. 75.

    Oswald and Hafner (2008), p. 18.

  76. 76.

    CAS 92/80, B. v. International Basketball Federation (FIBA), [1993], Reeb (Ed.) (Reeb 1998), p. 304; Hafner (2012), p. 216.

  77. 77.

    Dubey (2000), p. 631; Dubey (2004), pp. 31–45‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬.

  78. 78.

    Van den Bogaert (2005), p. 448.

  79. 79.

    See for example FIVB Sports Regulations (2016), Article 1.3, FIBA Internal Regulations (2018), Book 3, Chapter 1, Article 15.

  80. 80.

    Conseil d’Etat, Number 101894, Olympique d’Antibes Juan-les-Pins c. Fédération Française de Basket-ball, [1989]; OGH, 2Ob232/98a, Emanuel V. v. Österreichischer Eishockey-Verband and International Ice Hockey Federation, [1998]; LG Wien, 26 Cg 94/87, Deutsche Eishockeybund DEB v. International Ice Hockey Federation, [1987].

  81. 81.

    Oswald and Hafner (2008), p. 18.

  82. 82.

    Ibid.

  83. 83.

    FIBA Internal Regulations (2018), Book 3, Chapter 1, Article 21.a.

  84. 84.

    Van den Bogaert (2005), p. 448.

  85. 85.

    Oswald and Hafner (2008), p. 18.

  86. 86.

    Hafner (2012), p. 236.

  87. 87.

    Oswald and Hafner (2008), p. 18.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    Exner (2013b), p. 1042.

  90. 90.

    Oswald and Hafner (2008), p. 18.

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    See Chapter 2.3.

  93. 93.

    Gerhardt Bubník, an advocate and a leading Czech expert in the field of sports law, expressed this view regarding the modification of sporting nationality during our personal discussion held on 11 February 2016.

  94. 94.

    Case C-46/12, N., [2013] ECLI:EU:C:2013:97, paragraph 47; Case C-53/81, Levin v. Staatssecretaris van Justitie, [1982] EU:C:1982:105, paragraphs 21 and 22; Case C-109/01, Akrich, [2003] ECLI:EU:C:2003:491, paragraph 55.

  95. 95.

    Ibid.

  96. 96.

    Hafner 2008b, p. 1.

  97. 97.

    FIBA Internal Regulations (2018), Book 3, Chapter 1, Article 3.23.

  98. 98.

    Spiro (2014), p. 488.

  99. 99.

    FIFA Statutes (2018): Regulations Governing the Application of the Statutes, Rule 5.2.

  100. 100.

    FIFA Statutes (2018): Regulations Governing the Application of the Statutes, Rule 8.1.

  101. 101.

    FIFA Statutes (2018): Regulations Governing the Application of the Statutes, Rule 8.1.

  102. 102.

    Hafer (2008a), p. 3.

  103. 103.

    ITTF Handbook (2018), Rules 4.1.3.4, 4.3.6.3, 4.4.6.3.

  104. 104.

    Hafer (2008a), p. 3.

  105. 105.

    World Rugby Regulations (2016), Regulation 8, Rule 8.2.

  106. 106.

    Rugby sevens, also known as seven-a-side, Sevens or VIIs, is a variant of rugby in which teams are made up of seven players, instead of the usual 15, with shorter matches.

  107. 107.

    World Rugby Regulations (2016), regulation 8, rule 8.6; “Golf & rugby voted into Olympics”, BBC Sport, 9 October 2009, retrieved 31 October 2018.

  108. 108.

    Oswald (Ed.) (2004), p. 201. ‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬‬

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Exner, J. (2019). European Union Law and Sporting Nationality: Dangerous Liaison?. In: Sporting Nationality in the Context of European Union Law. SpringerBriefs in Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10807-6_5

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