Abstract
In this chapter, the previously outlined method of evaluating the compatibility of certain views and practices with human rights is applied to the liberty dimension of human rights. After exploring possible conflicts between human rights and worldviews centering upon organic-collective or non-self ontologies, I analyze restrictions of specific human rights with reference to “greater” collective goods (biopolitical integrity; social harmony; public morality; security).
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
- 3.
For a thought experiment and a critique of a perfectly happy society without rights, see also Feinberg 1992.
- 4.
Cf. also Borchers 2010.
- 5.
This (in)famous formula was originally coined by Francis Hutcheson (cf. 1753, sec. III).
- 6.
- 7.
Cf. also Robert Nozick’s example “of punishing an innocent man to save a neighborhood from vengeful rampage” (1974, pp. 28ff.).
- 8.
- 9.
For a personal account of such social pressure in the case of an American Jew marrying a non-Jewish woman, see Feldman 2007.
- 10.
Art. 10 CDHRI reads: “Islam is the religion of true unspoiled nature. It is prohibited to exercise any form of pressure on man or to exploit his poverty or ignorance in order to force him to change his religion to another religion or to atheism.”
- 11.
In the case of female apostates, classical Islamic law prescribes they be arrested and pressured until they repent.
- 12.
- 13.
Cf., e.g., the case of Raif Muhammad Badawi, flogged as apostate in Jiddah 2015, and still imprisoned. His crime consisted of nothing but declaring that religions are of equal value (cf. http://www.raifbadawi.org/); or the case of Malaysian scholar Kassim Ahmad (1933–2017), declared an apostate per fatwa for questioning the authority of the Sunnah and denying the duty of female Muslims to veil themselves in public (cf. Zahid 2014). See also Temperman 2008.
- 14.
Art. 18 (1) states: “Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching [emphasis added]” (UN 1966). Art. 18 UDHR is even more explicit: “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance [emphasis added]” (UN 1948). The right to change one’s religion is also entailed in the right to freedom of religion enshrined in Art. 9 ECHR (CoE 1950).
- 15.
For the protection (pre-Islamic) monotheistic minorities enjoy, see Baderin 2013.
- 16.
Already in the course of negotiating UDHR, this potential could be observed: a key reason for Saudi Arabia abstaining from approving of this declaration was that the other States declined the proposal for a restriction of Art. 10 in line with Islamic law (cf. UN 1948b). In addition, Egypt and Pakistan stated concerns regarding the full-fledged right to freedom of religion. Pakistan, however, finally changed sides and strongly supported the rights of all religions to proselytize (cf. UN 1948c).
- 17.
This article reads: “Men and women have the right to marriage, and no restrictions stemming from race, colour or nationality shall prevent them from exercising this right.” By contrast, UDHR states: “Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family.”
- 18.
See also similar debates in the CEDAW context (UN 1979).
- 19.
- 20.
- 21.
Art. 19 ICCPR lists the following legitimate restrictions on this right: the “respect of the rights or reputation of others” and the “protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals” (UN 1966). Cf. also Art. 10 ECHR (CoE 1950)—with similar and additional limits—and Art. 19 UDHR (UN 1948a) with no explicit restrictions.
- 22.
Cf. the statement of Singapore’s Justice Minister, K. Shanmugam on the limits of free speech: https://www.reach.gov.sg/participate/discussion-forum/archives/2015/01/23/shanmugam-clear-markers-for-free-speech-in-singapore. Accessed 20 October 2017.
- 23.
He adds, however: “Singapore has modeled a highly sophisticated legal framework that imposes close and strict regulation on the local and foreign press. Yet it is a simplistic view to suggest that Singapore’s press has been suppressed by its elaborate press control regime and turned into a blunt tool to serve narrow political interests” (ibid., p. 882).
- 24.
- 25.
Cf. esp. The Russian Orthodox Church’s Declaration on Human Dignity, Freedom and Rights (2008). Art. 3, 3 reads: “The development and implementation of the human rights concept should be harmonized with the norms of morality, with the ethical principle laid down by God in human nature and discernable in the voice of conscience.”
- 26.
A recent example are the efforts of Egypt’s government to crack down on “atheists” by making adhering to such areligious views punishable by death (cf. Al-araby 2017). This move is backed by al-Azhar University, a prime source of dictator Al-Sissi’s legitimacy. The head of al-Azhar’s supreme council for dawah declared: “It is necessary to enact laws that deter people from violating the natural instincts of man and punish those who have been seduced into atheism […]. The deterrent must be harsh and impeding to suit this malicious call and stop this poisonous thinking from spreading among Muslims and young people” (ibid.).
- 27.
In addition, the declaration states: “Information is a vital necessity to society. It may not be exploited or misused in such a way as may violate sanctities and the dignity of Prophets, undermine moral and ethical values or disintegrate, corrupt or harm society or weaken its faith” (Art. 22, c).
- 28.
- 29.
Translation by the author. Cf. also her magazine’s Appeal against Prostitution: http://www.emma.de/unterzeichnen-der-appell-gegen-prostitution-311923.
- 30.
For a discussion of Mill’s liberalism and its implications for the question of pornography, see esp. Cowen 2016.
- 31.
Translation by the author.
- 32.
Art. 12 UDHR reads: “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks” (UN 1948a). Cf. also Art. 8 EMRK (CoE 1950).
- 33.
Translation by the author.
- 34.
On the possibilities and challenges of intercultural criminal law, see esp. Höffe 1998.
- 35.
Criminal punishment aiming at other purposes (cf., e.g., Sect. 5.2.3), is thus always in potential conflict with human rights’ liberty dimension.
- 36.
According to ICCPR, the death penalty “may be imposed only for the most serious crimes in accordance with the law” (UN 1966, Art. 6, 2) and only if the person is not a minor and not a pregnant woman (ibid., Art. 6, 5). Only States who have ratified the Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty, have agreed that “[n]o one within the jurisdiction of a State Party to the present Protocol shall be executed” (UN 1989, Art. 1). The same holds for the ECHR (CoE 1950, Art. 2, 1). In the two Protocols Nr. 6 (1983) and Nr. 13 (2002) to the Convention, the CoE however affirms the (officially) unanimous condemnation of the death penalty (cf. also EU 2000, Art. 2).
- 37.
- 38.
A problem of in particular European sanction regimes, however, is that life sentence often merely amounts to long-term imprisonment. Effective prevention of rights violations thus is not guaranteed and cases where convicted murderers after serving their time in prison again violate the human rights of others, are too many and too obnoxious in the eyes of many to be brushed aside (cf., e.g., The Irish Times 2018).
- 39.
For An International Call for (sic) Moratorium on Corporal Punishment, Stoning and the Death Penalty in the Islamic World, see Ramadan 2005.
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Frick, ML. (2019). The Idea of Human Rights in Global Contexts: The Liberty Dimension. In: Human Rights and Relative Universalism. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10785-7_5
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