Abstract
Our voyage of discovery for understanding the complexity, specificity, and singularity of Iranian experience of development starts with the fundamental question of “What constitutes Iranianness (in the same vein as Turkishness, Britishness, etc.)?”, as the question of “Why are we backward?” logically tends to lead to the question of “Who and what are this ‘we’ as Iranians?” (see Akerlof and Kranton 2010). With regard to the notion of Iranianness and its constitution, Frye (1977: 1–3) observes that:
Of all of the lands of the Middle East, Iran is perhaps both the most conservative and at the same time the most innovative. Whereas Egypt and Syria, for example, underwent great changes in the course of two millennia of history, Iran seems to have preserved much more of its ancient heritage. … Iran was converted to the religion of Islam, but … [t]he continuity of ancient Iranian traditions down to the present is impressive… Paradoxically … Herodotus … said that no people were more prone to accept foreign habits as the Persians. Anyone who has walked the streets of new Tehran can see all kinds of styles of architecture and the latest women’s dress styles.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
Fang and Loury (2005) remind us that “Dysfunctional Identities Can Be Rational”. As such, the state of identitylessness is the logical implication of immersion in the state of belated inbetweenness.
- 2.
- 3.
As manifested in the conception of development as structural change based on the shift from tradition to modernity or in the share of three sectors of the economy, like Chenery’s and other version of the transition theories from big push to take off, to bottleneck and the rest (Lancaster and van de Walle 2018).
- 4.
As manifested in all oppositional genres of literatures in the form of antagonism between ‘modern and pre-modern’ or ‘centre versus margin’, or ‘free versus despotic’ or ‘oppressive versus progressive’ in liberal and neo-conservative theories or theories of post-colonialism and cultural studies alongside orientalism and subaltern literature like Spivak and Said and anti-development literature.
- 5.
See Rajaee 2006, on the double function of modernity as the dominant civilization and as a contesting culture in the melting pot of rival cultures.
- 6.
It is worth emphasizing that in the state of belated inbetweenness every regime of truth is inevitably instrumentalized to achieve fast and furious social transformation due to the traumatic dominance of “now” imagination (like the Shah’s instrumentalization of socialism and Islam). As such, the analyses like Platteau’s (2011, 2017) talking about instrumentalization of Islam as a hindrance to achieving democracy or development need to be incorporated within a wider framework of belated inbetweenness. The whole of the literature exploring the relation between culture or religion and development (Platteau and Peccoud 2011; Kuran 2011, 2018) may need to be placed within this wider theoretical framework.
- 7.
The reason this revolutionary movement, which could serve as the Iranian version of Protestantism, failed or is perceived to have failed has less to do with its content and form and more to do with the lack of consensus on its content and form. Any project of transformation from the liberal Constitutional Revolution or the ONM to the developmentalist of Amir Kabir, Rafsanjani, or the Pahlavi shahs to the emancipatory Islamic one could have succeeded if it had been based on an emergent consensus, which in the state of belated inbetweenness is almost impossible. The emergence of what Foucault saw as the age of terror and religious despotism in the post-revolutionary period in Iran, where “hands being chopped off today, after having been against the tortures of the SAVAK yesterday” (Raffnsøe et al. 2016: 442, footnote, 47), is the effect of irreconcilable differences inherent to the state of belated inbetweenness. In the state of belated inbetweenness, every single project of reverse social engineering of any colour or persuasion fails or becomes dysfunctional.
- 8.
Following the pioneering works of Gary Becker, Witham (2010) applies the same logic to the notions of markets to other realms of life, for instance, in the analysis of market for gods; see also Benabou and Tirole (2016) on the notion of market for beliefs, and Iannaccone (2006) for the notion of market for martyrs.
- 9.
This comes in sharp contrast with theories of decline, declinism, and theories of missing links and bottleneck, the analysis of which is beyond the space available in this work.
- 10.
Here he reduces difference to the logic of the same following Hafez, saying that these 72 voices are there because they failed to see the truth and fell prey to the path of the myth; ironically Hafez fails to see myth and illusion (afsaneh va afsoon) as constitutive of truth (see Gabriel and Zizek 2009; Baudrillard 1998), as we briefly addressed in the methodological section of this work.
Bibliography
Abadian, H. (2009a). Old Concepts and New Ideas: An Introduction to the Iranian Constitutionalism (in Persian). Tehran: Kavir.
Abadian, H. (2009b). The Crisis of the Formation and Consciousness of Intellectuals in Iran (in Persian). Tehran: Kavir.
Abrahamian, E. (1989). Radical Islam: The Iranian Mojahedin. London: I.B. Tauris.
Abrahamian, E. (2008). A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge: CUP.
Adamiyat, F. (1970). The Ideas of Akhundzadeh (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharat-e Amir Kabir (Amir Kabir Publications).
Adamiyat, F. (1978). The Ideas of Mirza Agha Khan Kermani (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharat-e Payam (Payam Publications).
Afary, J. (2013). The Place of Shi’i Clerics in the First Iranian Constitution. Critical Research on Religion, 1(3), 327–346.
Afghani, S. J.-a. D. (1892). The Reign of Terror in Persia. The Contemporary Review, 61, 238–248.
Aho, K. (2009). Heidegger’s Neglect of the Body. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Ainslie, G. (2001). Breakdown of Will. Cambridge: CUP.
Ajodani, M. (2002). Either Death or Modernity (in Persian). Tehran: Nashr-e Akhtaran.
Ajodani, M. (2006). Hedayat, Blind Owl, and Nationalism (in Persian). London: Fasl-e Ketab Publications.
Akerlof, G. A., & Kranton, R. E. (2010). Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages, and Well-Being. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Alaolmolki, N. (1987). The New Iranian Left. Middle East Journal, 41(2), 218–233.
Algar, H. (1999). Imam Khomeini: A Short Biography. The Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works. Retrieved May 29, 2013, from http://www.alislam.org/imambiography/title.htm.
Allen, G. (2000). Intertextuality. London: Routledge.
Almond, I. (2004). Sufism and Deconstruction: A Comparative Study of Derrida and Ibn Arabi. London: Routledge.
Amanat, A. (1997). Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Amin, H. (2003). The History of Law in Iran (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharat-e Da’erotolmaref-e Iranshenasi.
Aminrazavi, M. (2005). The Wine of Wisdom: The Life, Poetry and Philosophy of Omar Khayyam. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.
Ansari, A. M. (2012). The Politics of Nationalism in Modern Iran. New York: CUP.
Ansari, A. M. (2014). Iran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: OUP.
Arjomand, S. A. (1988). The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Studies in Middle Eastern History). Oxford: OUP.
Ashouri, D. (2005). Us and Modernity (in Persian). Tehran: Serat.
Ashouri, D. (2011). Mysticism and Slyness in the Poetry of Hafez (in Persian). Tehran: Nashr-e Markaz.
Azmayesh, M. (2001). With Ferdowsi: The Mystical Voyage to the Land of Seemorgh (in Persian). Tehran: entesharat-e Haghighat.
Azzi, C., & Ehrenberg, R. (1975). Household Allocation of Time and Church Attendance. The Journal of Political Economy, 83(1), 27–56.
Baudrillard, J. F. (1998). The Consumer Society: Myths and Structures. London: Sage.
Bauman, Z. (2000). Liquid Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Bausani, A. (1975). Muhammad or Darius? The Elements and Basis of Iranian Culture. In S. Vryonis Jr. (Ed.), Islam and Cultural Change in the Middle Ages (pp. 43–57). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Bayat, A. (2009). Life as Politics: How Ordinary People Change the Middle East. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Bayly, C. (2004). The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914. Oxford: OUP.
Bazargan, M. (1984). Iran’s Revolution in Two Moves (in Persian). Tehran: Naraghi.
Becker, E. (1973). The Denial of Death. New York: Free Press.
Becker, G. S. (1996). Accounting for Tastes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Beinhocker, E. D. (2007). The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics. London: Random House.
Benabou, R., & Tirole, J. (2016). Mindful Economics: The Production, Consumption, and Value of Beliefs. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(3), 141–164.
Berlin, I. (1990). In H. Hardy (Ed.), The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas. London: John Murray.
Borgmann, A. (1993). Crossing the Postmodern Divide. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Boroujerdi, M. (2003). The Ambivalent Modernity of Iranian Intellectuals in Intellectual Trends. In N. Nabavi (Ed.), Twentieth-Century Iran: A Critical Survey (pp. 11–23). Florida: University Press of Florida.
Boroujerdi, M. (Ed.). (2013). Mirror for the Muslim Prince: Islam and the Theory of Statecraft. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Brague, R. (2007). The Law of God: The Philosophical History of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Brosius, M. (2006). The Persians. London: Routledge.
Brumberg, D. (2001). Reinventing Khomeini: The Struggle for Reform in Iran. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Burke, B. L., Martens, A., & Faucher, E. H. (2010). Two Decades of Terror Management Theory: A Meta-Analysis of Mortality Salience Research. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 155–195.
Cave, S. (2012). Immortality: The Quest to Live Forever and How It Drives Civilization. New York: Crown Publishers.
Chakrabarty, D. (2000). Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Chehabi, H. E. (1990). Iranian Politics and Religious Modernism: The Liberation Movement of Iran Under the Shah and Khomeini. London: I.B. Tauris.
Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The Extended Mind. Analysis, 58, 7–19.
Clemens, W. C. (2013). Complexity Science and World Affairs. New York: Sunny Press.
Connolly, W. E. (2008). The Power of Assemblages and the Fragility of Things. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 17(2), 241–250.
Corbin, H. (1993). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge.
Coughlin, C. (2009). Khomeini’s Ghost: Iran Since 1979. London: Pan Macmillan.
Critchley, S. (2010). How to Stop Living and Start Worrying: Conversations with Carl Cederstrom. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Cronin, S. (Ed.). (2014). Anti-Veiling Campaigns in the Muslim World: Gender, Modernism and the Politics of Dress. London: Routledge.
Dabashi, H. (2010). Iran, the Green Movement and the USA: The Fox and the Paradox. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dabashi, H. (2011a). Shi’ism: A Religion of Protest. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Dabashi, H. (2011b). The Green Movement in Iran. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.
Dabashi, H. (2012). The World of Persian Literary Humanism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Dabashi, H. (2013). Being a Muslim in the World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dandamaev, M. A., & Lukonin, V. G. (2004). The Culture and Social Institutions of Ancient Iran. Cambridge: CUP.
Daryaee, T. (2009). Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London: I.B. Tauris.
Davaran, F. (2010). Continuity in Iranian Identity: Resilience of a Cultural Heritage. London: Routledge.
Davis, D. (2012). Faces of Love: Hafez and the Poets of Shiraz (D. Davis, trans.). Washington: Mage Publishers.
Deleuze, G. (1990). Bergsonism. New York: Zone Books.
Derrida, J. (1992). Acts of Literature. New York: Routledge.
Dinani, G. (2010). The Mystical and Philosophical Teachings of Imam Khomeini (in Persian). Tehran: Khabaronline.
Dinani, G. (with Karim Feizi). (2011). Existence and Intoxication: Khayyam in the Eye of Dinani (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharate Ettela’at.
Dixit, A. K., Skeath, S., & Reilly, D. (2015). Games of Strategy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Dummett, M. (1981). The Interpretation of Frege’s Philosophy. London: Duckworth.
Elster, J. (1998). Emotions and Economic Theory. Journal of Economic Literature, 36(1), 47–74.
Elster, J. (2000). Ulysses Unbound: Studies in Rationality. In Precommitment, and Constraints. Cambridge: CUP.
Enayat, H. (2013). Law, State, and Society in Modern Iran: Constitutionalism, Autocracy, and Legal Reform, 1906–1941. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Fang, H., & Loury, G. C. (2005). “Dysfunctional Identities” Can Be Rational. The American Economic Review, 95(2), 104–111.
Ferdowsi, A. (2008). The “Emblem of the Manifestation of the Iranian Spirit”: Hafiz and the Rise of the National Cult of Persian Poetry. Iranian Studies, 41(5), 667–691.
Ferrer, D. F. (2004). Philosophical Aphorisms: Critical Encounters with Heidegger and Nietzsche. Book on Demand.
Flynn, T. R. (2005). Sartre, Foucault, and Historical Reason: Poststructuralist Mapping of History (Vol. 2). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Foltz, R. (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford: OUP.
Foucault, M. (1980). Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon.
Foucault, M. (1981). On Revolution. Philosophy and Social Criticism, 1(1981), 5–9.
Foucault, M. (1984). The Foucault Reader (P. Rabinow, ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.
Foucault, M. (2003). The Birth of the Clinic. London: Routledge.
Freud, S. (1929). Civilization and Its Discontents. Electronic version. Aylesbury: Chrysoma Associates Ltd.
Frye, R. N. (1977/2000). The Golden Age of Persia: The Arabs in the East. New York: Phoenix Press.
Frye, R. N. (2005). Greater Iran: A 20th Century Odyssey. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers.
Gabriel, M., & Zizek, S. (2009). Mythology, Madness, and Laughter: Subjectivity in German Idealism. London: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Ghamari-Tabrizi, B. (2016). Foucault in Iran: Islamic Revolution After the Enlightenment. London: University of Minnesota Press.
Gillespie, M. A. (2008). The Theological Origins of Modernity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Gnoli, G. (1989). The Idea of Iran: An Essay on Its Origin. Roma: Istituto italiano peril Medio ed Estremo Oriente.
Goldenberg, J. L., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & Solomon, S. (2000). ‘Fleeing the Body: A Terror Management Perspective on the Problem of Human’ Corporeality. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(3), 200–218.
Grimshaw, M. (Ed.). (2014). The Oxford Handbook of Virtuality. Oxford: OUP.
Haar, M. (2002). Attunement and Thinking. In H. L. Dreyfus & M. A. Wrathall (Eds.), Heidegger Reexamined: Art, Poetry, and Technology (Vol. 3). New York: Routledge.
Hallward, P. (2003). Badiou: A Subject to Truth. London: University of Minnesota Press.
Hanson, C. (With a Chapter by George Ainslie). (2009). Thinking About Addiction: Hyperbolic Discounting and Responsible Agency. New York: Rodopi.
Hardin, R. (1995). One for All: The Logic of Group Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Heidegger, M. (1958). The Question of Being. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and Time. New York: Harper.
Hiro, D. (1985/2013). Iran Under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge.
Hoy, D. C. (2009). The Time of Our Lives: A Critical History of Temporality. London: The MIT Press.
Hunter, S. (2014). Iran Divided. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield.
Iannaccone, L. R. (1995). Household Production, Human Capital, and the Economics of Religion. In M. Tommasi & K. Ierulli (Eds.), The New Economics of Human Behavior (pp. 172–187). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Iannaccone, L. R. (1998). Introduction to the Economics of Religion. Journal of Economic Literature, 36(3), 1465–1495.
Iannaccone, L. R. (2006). The Market for Martyrs. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research on Religion, 2(2006), Article 4.
Islami Nadoushan, M. A. (2004). Four Speakers of Iran’s Conscience: Ferdowsi, Rumi, Sa’di, Hafiz (in Persian). Tehran: Nashr-e Ghatreh.
Islami Nadoushan, M. A. (2007). Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (in Persian). Tehran: Sherkat-e Sahami-ye Enteshar.
Jahanbegloo, R. (Ed.). (2004). Iran: Between Tradition and Modernity (Global Encounters). New York: Lexington Books.
Jameson, F. (1988). The Ideologies of Theory: The Syntax of History. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Kamaly, H. (2018). God and Man in Tehran: Contending Visions of the Divine from the Qajars to the Islamic Republic. New York: Columbia University Press.
Katouzian, H. (2000). European Liberalisms and Modern Concepts of Liberty in Iran. Journal of Iranian Research and Analysis, 16(2), 9–29.
Katouzian, H. (Ed.). (2008). Sadeq Hedayat: His Work and His Wondrous World. London: Routledge.
Katouzian, H. (2010). The Persians: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Iran. London: Yale University Press.
Katouzian, H. (2011). The Revolution for Law: A Chronographic Analysis of the Constitutional Revolution of Iran. Middle Eastern Studies, 47(5), 757–777.
Katouzian, H. (2012). Seyyed Hasan Taqizadeh: Three Lives in a Lifetime. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 32(1), 195–213.
Keddie, N. R. (1962). Religion and Irreligion in Early Iranian Nationalism. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 4(3), 265–295.
Keddie, N. R. (1980). Iran: Religion, Politics, and Society: Collected Essays. Sussex: Psychology Press.
Kermani, A. K. (1925). The War of Seventy-Two Belief Systems (in Persian). Berlin: Iranshahr Publications.
Khomeini, R. (2010). The Book of Light: Volume 7 (in Persian). Tehran: Mpasseseh-ye Tanzm va Nashr-e Asar-e Imam Khomeini.
Khorramshahi, B. (1988). The Book of Hafez: A Guide (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharat-e Soroush.
Kia, M. (1995). Mizra Fath Ali Akhundzadeh and the Call for Modernization of the Islamic World. Middle Eastern Studies, 31(3), 422–448.
Kulikowski, M. (2016). The Triumph of Empire: The Roman World From Hadrian to Constantine. London: Profile Books.
Kuran, T. (2011). The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Kuran, T. (2018). Islam and Economic Performance: Historical and Contemporary Links. Journal of Economic Literature, 56(4), 1292–1359.
Kurzman, C. (2008). Democracy Denied, 1905–1915: Intellectuals and the Fate of Democracy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Lacan, J. (1988). The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: Book 2. Cambridge: CUP.
Lambton, A. K. S. (1964). A Reconsideration of the Position of the Marja’ Al-Taqlīd and the Religious Institution. Studia Islamica, 20, 115–135.
Lambton, A. K. S. (1980). Islamic Mirrors for Princes. In Theory and Practice in Medieval Persian Government. London: Variorum Reprints.
Lancaster, C., & van de Walle, N. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford Handbook of the Politics of Development. Oxford: OUP.
Legenhausen, H. M. (2007). Introduction. Topoi, 26, 167–175.
Lester, D. (Ed.). (2015). On Multiple Selves. London: Routledge.
Lewis, B. (2004). From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East. Oxford: OUP.
Lewisohn, L. (Ed.). (2010). Hafiz and the Religion of Love in Classical Persian Poetry. London: Tauris.
Mackey, S. (1998). The Iranians: Persia, Islam and the Soul of a Nation. New York: Plume Books.
Mahmoud, S. (2007). From ‘Heidegger to Suhrawardi’: An Introduction to the Thought of Henry Corbin. Retrieved December 7, 2013, from http://www1.amiscorbin.com/textes/anglais/2007%20From%20Heid.CorbinIntro.pdf.
Mann, G. (2017). In the Long Run We Are All Dead. Brooklyn: Verso.
Markell, P. (2003). Bound by Recognition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Masroori, C. (2000). European Thought in Nineteenth-Century Iran: David Hume and Others. Journal of the History of Ideas, 61(4), 657–674.
Medina, J. (2006). Speaking from Elsewhere: A New Contextualist Perspective on Meaning. Albany: SUNY Press.
Milani, A. (2004). Lost Wisdom: Rethinking Modernity in Iran. Washington: Mage Publishers.
Milani, A. (2011). Is_Ahmadinejad_Islamic_enough_for_Iran. Foreign policy. http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/04/29/is_ahmadinejad_islamic_enough_for_iran.
Mirsepassi, A., & Faraji, M. (2016). De-Politicizing Westoxification: The Case of Bonyad Monthly. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 45(3), 355–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2016.1261784.
Moaveni, A. (2005). Lipstick Jihad. A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America and American in Iran. New York: Public Affairs.
Mohaghegh, J. B. (2010). New Literature and Philosophy of the Middle East: The Chaotic Imagination. London: Routledge.
Mohammadi Malayeri, M. (1996–2003). History and Culture of Iran in the Transitional Period from the Sassanid Age to Islamic Age (in Persian, six volumes). Tehran: Tus.
Moin, B. (1999). Khomeini: Life of the Ayatollah. London: I.B. Tauris.
Mokyr, J. (2016). A Culture of Growth: The Origins of the Modern Economy. Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Mosavi, S. A. (2013). Fardid in the Narrative of Bizhan Abdolkarimi (in Persian). khabaronline. http://khabaronline.ir/detail/322748/culture/religion.
Movahhed, M. A. (1999). The Confused Dream of Oil: Dr. Mosaddegh and the Iranian National Movement (in Persian). Tehran: Karnameh.
Movahhed, M. A. (2004). The Confused Dream of Oil: From the Coup of 28th of Mordad to the Fall of Zahedi (in Persian). Tehran: Karnameh.
Mueller, D. C. (2003). Public Choice III. Cambridge: CUP.
Mulhall, S. (1996). Heidegger and Being and Time. London: Routledge.
Nasri, A. (2007). Encounter with Modernity (in Persian) (Vol. 2). Tehran: Nashr-e Elm.
Nietzsche, F. W. (1999). The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings. Cambridge: CUP.
Nuovo, V. (2011). Christianity, Antiquity, and Enlightenment: Interpretations of Locke. London: Springer.
Omidsalar, M. (2011). Poetics and Politics of Iran’s National Epic, the Shahnameh. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Omidsalar, M. (2012). Iran’s Epic and America’s Empire: A Handbook for a Generation in Limbo. Santa Monica, CA: Afshar Publishing.
Osanloo, A. (2009). The Politics of Women’s Rights in Iran. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the Commons. New York: CUP.
Quiggin, J. (2010). Zombie Economics: How Dead Ideas Still Walk Among Us. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Paidar, P. (1995). Women and the Political Process in Twentieth-Century Iran. Cambridge: CUP.
Parr, A. (Ed.). (2010). The Deleuze Dictionary (revised ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Parsons, W. B. (1999). The Enigma of the Oceanic Feeling: Revisioning the Psychoanalytic Theory of Mysticism. Oxford: OUP.
Pedersen, N. J. L. L., & Wright, C. D. (Eds.). (2013). Truth and Pluralism: Current Debates. Oxford: OUP.
Platteau, J.-P. (2011). Political Instrumentalization of Islam and the Risk of Obscurantist Deadlock. World Development, 39(2), 243–260.
Platteau, J.-P. (2017). Islam Instrumentalized. New York: CUP.
Platteau, J.-P., & Peccoud, R. (Eds.). (2011). Culture, Institutions, and Development: New Insights into an Old Debate. New York: Routledge.
Poole, A. (2005). Tragedy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: OUP.
Popper, K. R. (1961). The Poverty of Historicism. New York: Routledge.
Raffnsøe, S., Gudmand-Hoyer, M., & Thaning, M. S. (2016). Michel Foucault: A Research Companion. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rahnema, A. (1998). An Islamic Utopian: a Political Biography of Ali Shari’ati. London: I.B. Tauris.
Rajaee, F. (2006). The Problematic of Iranian Contemporary Identity: Participation in the World of One Civilization and Many Cultures (in Persian). Tehran: Nashr-e Ney.
Rajaee, F. (2007). Islamism and Modernism: The Changing Discourse in Iran. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Ricoeur, P. (1981). Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences. Cambridge: CUP.
Rothenberg, J. C. (2011). Inside the Revolution: How the Followers of Jihad, Jefferson & Jesus Are Battling to Dominate the Middle East and Transform the World. Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers.
Rose, J., & Shulman, G. (2016). The Non-Linear Mind: Psychoanalysis of Complexity in Psychic Life. London: Karnac Books.
Ross, D. (2005). Economic Theory and Cognitive Science: Microexplanation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ross, D. (2010). Game Theory. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 edition). http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2010/entries/game-theory/.
Savant, S. B. (2013). The New Muslims of Post-Conquest Iran: Tradition, Memory, and Conversion. Cambridge: CUP.
Schellenberg, S. (2013). A Trilemma About Mental Content. In J. K. Shear (Ed.), Mind, Reason, and Being-in-the-World: The McDowell-Dreyfus Debate (pp. 272–282). London: Routledge.
Schimmel, A. (1975). Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.
Sedghi, H. (2007). Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. Cambridge: CUP.
Shafa, S. (1999). Explaining the Problems: An Answer to the a-Thousand-Year Questions from Koleini to Khomeini (in Persian). Paris: Nashr-e Farzad.
Shakibi, Z. (2016). The Rastakhiz Party and Pahlavism: The Beginnings of State Anti-Westernism in Iran. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2016.1246242.
Shakoori, A. (2001). The State and Rural Development in Post-Revolutionary Iran. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Sharifi, M. (2013). Imagining Iran: The Tragedy of Subaltern Nationalism. New York: Lexington Books.
Shayegan, D. (1977/2007). Asia Against the West (in Persian). Tehran: Entesharat Amir Kabir.
Shayegan, D. (2012). The Dialogue Between Civilization Started Before the Revolution/Still Our Best Thinkers Are Poets (in Persian). Yarikh-e Irani. http://www.tarikhirani.ir/fa/news/4/bodyView/2142/0/.html accessed 07/05/2013.
Shayegan, D. (2014). Five Realms of Presence: A Discourse on Iranian Poeticality (in Persian). Tehran: Farhan Mo’aser.
Sohrabi, N. (2011). Revolution and Constitutionalism in the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Cambridge: CUP.
Soroush, A. (1993). Sturdier than Ideology (in Persian). Tehran: Serat.
Steward, T. P. (2017). In Between Home and Homeland: Diaspora Identity as a Cultural Hybrid in Mohsen Namjoo’s “Cielito Lindo”. Popular Communication, 15(3), 207–220.
Stratmann, T. (1997). Logrolling. In D. Mueller (Ed.), Perspectives on Public Choice (pp. 322–341). Cambridge: CUP.
Tabatabai, J. (1994/2006). The Decline of Political Thoughts in Iran (in Persian). Tehran: Kavir.
Tabatabai, J. (2013). An Anomaly in the History of Persian Political Thought. In M. Boroujerdi (Ed.), Mirror for the Muslim Prince: Islam and the Theory of Statecraft. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Tavakoli-Targhi, M. (1990). The Effect of Awareness About the French Revolution on the Constitutional Revolution in Iran (in Persian). Iran Nameh, shomareh-ye 3, Tabestan-e 1369.
Tavakoli-Targhi, M. (2001). Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Historiography. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Tavakoli-Targhi, M. (2009). Historiography and Crafting Iranian National Identity. In T. Atabaki (Ed.), Iran in the 20th Century Historiography and Political Culture. London: I.B. Tauris.
Taylor, C. (2001). Two Theories of Modernity. In D. Gaonkar (Ed.), Alternative Modernities. Durham: Duke University Press.
Taylor, C. (2007). A Secular Age. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Taylor, C. (2016). The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Thomson, G. D. (1880/2017). Evolution and Involution. Fb&c Ltd.
Vahdat, F. (2002). God and Juggernaut: Iran’s Intellectual Encounter with Modernity. New York: Syracuse University Press.
Weir, T. H. (2012). Monism: Science, Philosophy, Religion, and the History of a Worldview. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
White, C. J. (2005). Time and Death: Heidegger’s Analysis of Finitude. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing.
Williamson, O. E. (2000). The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead. Journal of Economic Literature, 38(3), 595–613.
Witham, L. (2010). Marketplace of the Gods: How Economics Explains Religion. Oxford: OUP.
Zizek, S. (2001). On Belief. London: Routledge.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Gohardani, F., Tizro, Z. (2019). Tragedy of Confusion. In: The Political Economy of Iran. Political Economy of Islam. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10638-6_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10638-6_4
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-10637-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-10638-6
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)