Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Observational Assessment of the Dyad

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Clinical Guide to Psychiatric Assessment of Infants and Young Children

Abstract

Assessment procedures for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers should include caregiver interviews, caregiver-report questionnaires, observational coding procedures, and collateral reports (i.e., medical, child care, etc.). This multimodal assessment approach provides clinicians a systematic means to incorporate the many factors that impact an infant’s clinical presentation. The prior chapter focuses on one aspect of a multimodal psychiatric evaluation, specifically observing the dyadic interaction. In this chapter, we outline key considerations regarding instrument selection, application and interpretation, and provide an in-depth list of dyadic observational measures which have been found to have useful clinical applications.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ainsworth, M. (1969). Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40(4), 969–1025. https://doi.org/10.2307/1127008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, K. E. (1979). Instructor’s learning resource manual. Seattle, WA: NCAST Publications, University of Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, K. E., Bee, H. L., & Hammond, M. A. (1984). Developmental changes in maternal interactions with term and preterm infants. Infant Behavior & Development, 7, 101–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bornstein, M. H. (2012). Cultural approaches to parenting. Parenting: Science and Practice, 12, 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295192.2012.683359

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Zentall, S., Lickenbrock, D. M., Ekas, N. V., Oshio, T., & Planalp, E. (2014). Attachment in the making: Mother and father sensitivity and infants’ responses during the Still-Face Paradigm. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 125, 63–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biringen, Z. (2000). Emotional Availability: Conceptualization and Research Findings. AmericanJournal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 104–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biringen, Z. (2005). Training and reliability issues with the emotional avaliability scales. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 404–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biringen, Z., Robinson, J., & Emde, R. N. (1998). Emotional Availability Scale (3rd ed.) Unpublished manual for the EAS Training. Boulder, CO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, S. D., & Hill, A. (2007). Caregiver influences on emerging emotion regulation: Biological and environmental transactions in early development. In J. J. Gross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–26). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campinha-Bacote, J. (2002). The process of cultural competence in the delivery of healthcare services: A model of care. Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 13(3), 181–184.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. (1983). Interactions of psychiatrically ill and well mothers and their young children: Quality of maternal care and child competence. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. (1985, 2010, 2015). The parent-child early relational assessment: Instrument and manual. MadisonWI: University of Wisconsin Medical School.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R. (1999). The parent-child early relational assessment: A factorial validity study. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 59(5), 821–846. https://doi.org/10.1177/00131649921970161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Hyde, J. S., Essex, M. J., & Klein, M. H. (1997). Length of maternity leave and quality of mother-infant interactions. Child Development, 68(2), 364–383. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131855

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Tluczek, A., & Brown, R. (2008). A mother-infant therapy group model for postpartum depression. Infant Mental Health Journal, 29(5), 514–536.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Tluczek, A., Evenson, A. L. & Moore, E.C. (In Press) Assessment of early parent-child relationships. In R. Del Carmen & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of Infant, Toddler and Preschool Mental Health Assessment 2nd Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Tluczek, A., Moore, E., & Evenson, A. (2004a). Assessment of early parent-child relationships. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment Second Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, R., Tluczek, A., Moore, E., & Evenson, A. (2004b). Theoretical and empirical foundations for early relationship assessment in evaluating infant and toddler mental health. In R. DelCarmen-Wiggins & A. Carter (Eds.), Handbook of infant, toddler, and preschool mental health assessment (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (1973). Interactions between mothers and their young children: Characteristics and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 38(6-7), 1–109. https://doi.org/10.2307/1165928

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, J., & Feldman, S. (1988). Mothers’ internal models of relationships and children’s behavioral and developmental status: A study of mother-child interaction. Child Development, 59, 1273–1285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, J., Feldman, S., & Ginsberg, N. (1988). Assessment of mother-child interaction in preschoolers with behavior problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 303–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowell, J. A., Warner, D. E., Davis, C. R., Marraccini, M., & Dearing, E. (2010). The influence of childhood adversity on mothers’ behavior with preschoolers: Role of maternal attachment coherence, dissociative symptoms, and marital behaviors. Research in Human Development, 7(4), 274–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dallay, E. G., & Guedeney, A. (2016). Parent-infant interaction assessment. In A. L. Sutter-Dallay, N. M. C. Glangeaud-Freudenthal, A. Guedeney, A. Riecher-Rössler, et al. (Eds.), Joint care of parents and infants in perinatal psychiatry (pp. 93–108). Cham: Springer International Publishing Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, M., & Parlakian, R. (2003). How culture shapes social-emotional development: Implications for practice in infant-family programs. Washington, DC: Zero to Three.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dudas, K. I. (2012). Cultural competence: An evolutionary concept analysis. Nursing Education Perspectives, 33(5), 317–321. https://doi.org/10.5480/1536-5026-33.5.317

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Earls, L,, Muzik, M., Beeghly, M. (2009). Maternal and infant behavior coding manual. Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emde, R. N. (1989). The infant’s relationship experience: Developmental and affective aspects. In J. A. Sameroff & R. N. Emde (Eds.), Relationship disturbances in early childhood: A developmental approach (pp. 33–51). New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farran, D., Clark, K., & Ray, A. (1990). Measures of parent-child interaction. In E. Gibbs & D. Teti (Eds.), Interdisciplinary assessment of infants: A guide for early intervention professionals (pp. 227–247). Baltimore, MA: Paul H. Brooks.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R., Dollberg, D., & Nadam, R. (2011). The expression and regulation of anger in toddlers: Relations to maternal behavior and mental representations. Infant Behavior & Development, 34, 310–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.02.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, C. B., Hoagwood, K., Boyce, C., Duster, T., Frank, D. A., Grisso, T., et al. (2002). Research ethics for mental health science involving ethnic minority children and youths. American Psychologist, 57, 1024–1040.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1998). Mentalization and the changing aims of child psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 8(1), 87–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/10481889809539235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaskins, S. (2006). Cultural perspectives on infant-caregiver interaction. In N. J. Enfield & S. C. Levinson (Eds.), The roots of human sociality: Culture, cognition, and human interaction. New York, NY: Berg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerstein, E. D., Poehlmann-Tynan, J., & Clark, R. (2015). Mother-child interactions in the NICU: Relevance and implications for later parenting. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 40(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsu064

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S., & Gotlib, I. (Eds.). (2002). Children of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk and implications for treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, S. H., & Brumley, E. H. (1990). Schizophrenic and depressed mothers: Relational deficits in parenting. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 31–39. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.26.1.31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grace, S. L., Evindar, A., & Stewart, D. (2003). The effect of postpartum depression on child cognitive development and behavior: A review and critical analysis of the literature. Archive of Women’s Mental Health, 6(4), 263–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heller, S., Aoki, Y., & Schoffner, K. (1998). Revision of the Crowell caregiver-child relationship scale. Unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving Harris Foundation. (2012). Diversity-informed infant mental health tenets. Retrieved from www.imhdivtenets.org

    Google Scholar 

  • Jernberg, A. M., & Booth, P. B. (1999). Theraplay: Helping parents and children build better relationships through attachment-based play (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. F. & Barnard, K. E., (2000). Assessment of Parent-Child Interaction: Implications for Early Intervention. In S. Meisels & J. P. Shonkoff (Eds.) The Handbook of Early Intervention (2nd Edition, pp. 278–302). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Syndicate of the Press of the University of Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, J. F., Buehlman, K., & Caldwell, K. (2000). Training personnel to promote quality parent–child interaction in families who are homeless. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20, 174–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klotz, M. B., & Canter, A. (2006). Culturally competent assessment and consultation. Retrieved September 14, 2015, from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/principals/CulturallyCompetentAssessmentandConsultationNASSP.pdf

  • Korja, R., Ahlqvist-Björkroth, S., Savonlahti, E., Stolt, S., Haataja, L., Lapinleimu, H., et al. (2010). Relations between maternal attachment representations and the quality of mother-infant interaction in preterm and full-term infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 33(3), 330–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2010.03.010

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korja, R., Savonlahti, E., Ahlqvist-Björkroth, S., Stolt, S., Haataja, L., Lapinleimu, H., et al. (2008). Maternal depression is associated with mother-infant interaction in preterm infants. Acta Paediatrica, 97, 724–730. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00733.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larrieu, J., & Bellow, S. (2004). Relationship assessment for young traumatized children. In J. O. Osofsky (Ed.), Young children and trauma: Intervention and treatment (pp. 155–172). New York, NY: The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lor, M., Crooks, N., & Tluczek, A. (2016). A proposed model of person-, family-, and culture-centered nursing care. Nursing Outlook, 64, 352–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loop, L., Mouton, B., Brassart, E., & Roskam, I. (2016). The observation of child behavior during the caregiver-child interaction: The psychometric properties of the Crowell procedure. Journal of Child and Family Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0625-0

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E., & Parsons, E. (1999). Maternal frightened, frightening, or atypical behavior and disorganized infant attachment patterns. In J. I. Vondra & D. Barnett (Eds.), Atypical patterns of infant attachment theory research and current directions. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64, 67–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcus, S. M., Flynn, H. A., Blow, F. C., & Barry, K. L. (2003). Depressive symptoms among pregnant women screened in obstetrics settings. Journal of Women’s Health, 12(4), 373–380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matas, L., Arend, R. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1978). Continuity of adaptation in the second year: The relationship between quality of attachment and later competence. Child Development, 49(3), 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minde, K., Faucon, A., & Falkner, S. (1994). Sleep problems in toddlers: Effects of treatment on their daytime behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(8), 1114–1121. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199410000-00007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miron, D., Lewis, M., & Zeanah, C. (2009). Clinical use of observational procedures in early childhood relationship assessment. In C. H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (3rd ed., pp. 252–265). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mothander, P. R. (1990). The first year of life: Predictive patterns of infant development, maternal adjustment, and mother-infant interaction. Uppsala: Uppsala University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mouton, N., Loop, L., Stievenart, M., & Roskam, I. (2017). Child differential sensitivity to parental self-efficacy improvement: A micro-trial perspective. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 42, 203–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, J., Bosquet, M., Kronenberg, M., & Hammer, J. (2003). Revision of parent-child relationship coding manual. New Orleans, WA: Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipp-Siegel, S., & Biringen, Z. (1998). Assessing the quality of relationships between parents and children: The emotional availability scales. The Volta Review, 100, 237–249.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poehlmann, J., Burnson, C., & Weymouth, L. A. (2014). Early parenting, represented family relationships, and externalizing behavior problems in children born preterm. Attachment & Human Development, 16(3), 271–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2014.884610

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, L. R., Morris, A. S., Heller, S., Scheeringa, M. S., Boris, N. W., & Smyke, A. T. (2009). Relations between emotion regulation, caregiving, and psychopathology in young maltreated children in out of home care. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 421–434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roggman, L. A., Cook, G. A., Innocenti, M. S., Norman, V. J., Christiansen, K. (2013). Parenting Interactions with Children: Checklist of Observations Linked to Outcomes (PICCOLO) in Diverse Ethnic Groups. Infant Mental Health Journal, 34, 290–306

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblum, K. L., McDonough, S., Muzik, M., Miller, A., & Sameroff, A. (2002). Maternal representations of the infant: Associations with infant response to the Still Face. Child Development, 73(4), 999–1015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sander, L. S. (1964). Adaptive relationships in early mother-child interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 3, 231–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarche, M., Tsethlikai, M, Godoy, G., Emde, R., & Fleming, C. (2004) Cultural perspectives for assessing infants and young children

    Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. (2001). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1-2), 7–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shonkoff, J. P., Phillips, D. A., & National Research Council (U.S.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early child development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slade, A. (1999). Attachment theory and research: Implications for the theory and practice of individual psychotherapy with adults. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment Theory research and clinical applications. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sprang, G., & Craig, C. (2015). Crowell problem solving procedure: A psychometric analysis of a laboratory measure of the caregiver-child relationship. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20, 202–209.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (1996). Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (2000). Early relationships and the development of children. Infant Mental Health Journal, 21, 67–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. (1985). The interpersonal world of the infant. New York, NY: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stern, D. (2002). The first relationship: Infant and mother. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, G., & Speitz, A. (1995a). NCAST caregiver/parent-child interaction feeding manual. Seattle, WA: NCAST Publications, University of Washington, School of Nursing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sumner, G., & Speitz, A. (1995b). NCAST caregiver/parent-child interaction teaching manual. Seattle, WA: NCAST Publications, University of Washington, School of Nursing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Song, L. (2012). Parent-infant communicative interactions in cultural context. In I. B. Weiner, R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks, & J. Mistry (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Volume 6: Developmental psychology (2nd ed., pp. 143–170). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tamminen, T. (2006). How does culture promote the early development of identity? Infant Mental Health Journal, 27(6), 603–605. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20109

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teti, D. M., Nakagawa, M., Das, R., & Wirth, O. (1991). Security of attachment between preschoolers and their mothers: Relations among social interaction, parenting stress, and mother’s sorts of attachment Q-set. Developmental Psychology, 27(3), 440–447. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.27.3.440

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tronick, E., Als, H., Adamson, L., Wise, S., & Brazelton, T. B. (1978). Infants’ response to entrapment between contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • The St. Petersburg—USA Orphanage Research Team, (2008). The effects of early social-emotional and relationship experience on the development of young orphanage children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73, vii-295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhage, M. L., Schuengel, C., Madigan, S., Fearon, R. M. P., Oosterman, M., Cassibba, R., et al. (2016). Narrowing the transmission gap: A synthesis of three decades of research on intergenerational transmission of attachment. Psychological Bulletin, 142(4), 337–366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, A. M., & Harrison, T. M. (2014). Maternal behavior and infant physiology during feeding in premature and term infants over the first year of life. Research in Nursing and Health, 37(6), 478–489. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.21618

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerlund, M., & Lagerberg, D. (2007). Expressive vocabulary in 18-month-old children in relation to demographic factors, mother and child characteristics, communication style and shared reading. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34, 257–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Winnicott, D. W. (1965). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development. New York, NY: International Universities Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winnicott, D. W. (1970). The mother-infant experience of mutuality. In E. J. Anthony & T. Benedek (Eds.), Parenthood: Its psychology and psychopathology (pp. 245–288). London: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., Boris, N. W., Heller, S. S., Hinshaw-Fuselier, S., Larrieu, J. A., Lewis, M., et al. (1997). Relationship assessment in infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 18, 182–197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., Larrieu, J. A., Heller, S., & Valliere, J. (2000). Infant caregiver relationship assessment. In C. H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (2nd ed., pp. 222–235). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zero to Three: National Center for Clinical Infant Programs. (2016). DC:0-5: Diagnostic classification of mental health and developmental disorders of infancy and early childhood. Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Tulane University Medical School, New Orleans, LA, USA

    Sherryl Scott Heller & Anna Kelley

  2. University of Maryland School of Social Work, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Kate Wasserman

  3. School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA

    Roseanne Clark

Authors
  1. Sherryl Scott Heller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kate Wasserman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anna Kelley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Roseanne Clark
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sherryl Scott Heller .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Irving Harris Program in Child Development and Infant Mental Health, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, USA

    Karen A. Frankel

  2. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Joyce Harrison

  3. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Fellowship, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Wanjiku F. M. Njoroge

  4. Young Child Clinic, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Wanjiku F. M. Njoroge

  5. Policy Lab, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Wanjiku F. M. Njoroge

  6. Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Wanjiku F. M. Njoroge

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Heller, S.S., Wasserman, K., Kelley, A., Clark, R. (2019). Observational Assessment of the Dyad. In: Frankel, K.A., Harrison, J., Njoroge, W.F.M. (eds) Clinical Guide to Psychiatric Assessment of Infants and Young Children. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10635-5_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation