Abstract
In physical terms life constitutes a complex carbon -based system which replicates information, departs from thermodynamic equilibrium through the use of chemical metabolism , and undergoes variation and selection . Living things tend to be complex and highly organized, have an ability to acquire energy from the environment and transform it for growth and reproduction , tending toward homeostasis , response, stimulation, reaction, recoiling, learning, reproduction , growth and development. A phylogenetic scheme is based upon ribosomal RNA sequence which shows living systems belong to one of three classes: (A) the eubacteria , comprising all typical bacteria ; (B) the archaebacteria , containing methanogenic bacteria ; and (C) the Eukaryotes, comprising cytoplasmic components within eukaryotic cells from which species and kingdoms evolved. Evolving cell network emerge as output of a cellular computing network , inducing changes in structure of the network itself through changes in the DNA activity patterns. In an “RNA world ” self-replication is reached by combination of the nucleotides adenine , uracil, guanine and cytosine , forming templates for synthesis of new strands of RNA . Early cells formed by enclosure of self-replicating RNA in membrane composed of phospholipids , the basic components of biological membranes of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The DNA of Eukaryote cells may contain 0.6–5.0 × 106 base pairs, capable of encoding about 5000 different proteins. Given the distinct structure and composition of the cell and computer chips, both possessing high processing power and natural and artificial intelligence , respectively, the design of artificial intelligence offers insights into some of the processes taking place in natural systems. The exploration of the deep hot biosphere located in oceanic hydrothermal energy sources, or within fractures in deep seated rocks, isolated from the influence of the sun and photosynthesis , has opened new windows in the search for early evolution of life . The development of colonies consisting of specialized cells signifies emergence of inter-cellular communications and coordination, implying each cell possess information regarding what the other cells are doing—a quantum leap toward evolution of complex multi-task organisms .
Superstrings
Tiny wispy strings
Cryptic little things
Shape universes, sing
Oh take me on your wings.
X-apparitions chase
Light speed - a cosmic race
Appears from quantum space
Oblivious to my race.
DNA chains extend
RNA healers bend
Repair a link, append
life’s wonder: self-amend.
RNA chains collapse
A lover’s final gasp
Queen Cleo’s sacrifice
While gods are playing dice.
Unseen hands strum guitar
Bells’ echoes reach afar
No strings attached, no bar
Can bind a young blue star.
My thought waves rise and ebb
Brains weave a spider’s web
Probe truths or make believe
Loft crests I can’t achieve.
Web sites each other find
A net’s collective mind
Tripwire humankind
A cyclops stumbling blind.
(Andrew Glikson)
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Life —definition. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Last updated July 2018 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/life.
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Genes are made from DNA . A gene that is formed from DNA codes for a specific protein . A genome is the collection of a lot of strands of DNA , where thousands of genes are included.
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A chromosome is a DNA molecule with part or all of the genetic material (genome ) of an organism . Chromosomes, which carry the hereditary material, or DNA , are contained in the nucleus of each cell . Chromosomes come in pairs, with one member of each pair inherited from each parent. The two members of a pair are called homologous chromosomes. Each cell of an organism and all individuals of the same species have, as a rule, the same number of chromosomes. The reproductive cells (gametes) are an exception; they have only half as many chromosomes as the body (somatic) cells. But the number, size, and organization of chromosomes varies between species .
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Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that are capable of catalyzing specific biochemical reactions, similar to the action of protein enzymes.
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CK-12 (2018) First Organic Molecules —Advanced. https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Biology-Advanced-Concepts/section/10.8/.
- 9.
An emergent property is a property which a collection or complex system has, but which the individual members do not have. A failure to realize that a property is emergent , or supervenient, leads to the fallacy of division. An emergent behavior or emergent property can appear when a number of simple entities (agents) operate in an environment, forming more complex behaviors as a collective . If emergence happens over disparate size scales, then the reason is usually a causal relation across different scales.
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At its most basic level, the concept of emergent properties states that with rising levels of complexity in living things, new patterns will emerge. This is the case whether you move up the chain from simple single-celled organisms to much more complex multi-celled organisms , or whether you move from a single organism to an entire population of that organism . http://education.seattlepi.com/emergent-properties-living-things-biology-6131.html.
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A lipid containing a phosphate group in its molecule, e.g. phosphatidylcholine.
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Khan Academy. Intro to Eukaryotic Cells. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-cells/a/intro-to-eukaryotic-cells.
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CliffsNotes (2016) Origin of Cells. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/the-origin-and-evolution-of-life/origin-of-cells.
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Prokaryotic nucleus -free cells that are very common in the environment.
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Archaea are prokaryotes, meaning they have no cell nucleus or any other membrane -bound organelles in their cells. They have unique properties separating them from the other two domains of life , Bacteria and Eukaryota.
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An organelle is a tiny cellular structure that performs specific functions within a cell . Organelles are embedded within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. In the more complex eukaryotic cells, organelles are often enclosed by their own membrane .
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Extremophiles are organisms that survive in environments that were once thought not to be able to sustain life , including intense heat, highly acidic environments, extreme pressure and extreme cold.
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A substance forming the cell walls of many bacteria , consisting of glycosaminoglycan chains interlinked with short peptides .
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Cyanobacteria are Prokaryotes, which are known to be the earliest forms of life , throughout time they have adapted to the changing earth, and in turn help it.
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Cytoplasm : the material or protoplasm within a living cell , excluding the nucleus .
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Mitochondria are organelles, or parts of a eukaryote cell , located in the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus . They make most of the cell ‘s supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that cells use as a source of energy . Their main job is this energy conversion.
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A plastid in green plant cells which contains chlorophyll and in which photosynthesis takes place.
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Cytoskeleton : a microscopic network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells, giving them shape and coherence. The cytoskeleton cytoskeleton is responsible for the movements of entire cells, intracellular transport and positioning of organelles.
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Chromosome : a thread-like structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
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A protist is any eukaryotic organism that is not an animal, plant or fungus . The protists do not form a natural group.
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ATP: Adenosine triphosphate . Adenosine triphosphate . An energy -carrying molecule found in the cells of all living things. It captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. The phosphate tail of ATP is the actual power source taps y the cell .
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An organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane .
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A small organelle present in the cytoplasm of many cells, which contains the reducing enzyme catalase and usually some oxidases.
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A vacuole (/ˈvækjuːoʊl/) is a membrane -bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are essentially enclosed compartments which are filled with water containing inorganic and organic molecules .
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A ribosome is a cell organelle . It functions as a micro-machine for making proteins. Ribosomes are composed of special proteins and nucleic acids . The translation of information and the Linking of amino acids are at the heart of the protein production process. Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small ribosomal subunit, which reads the RNA , and the large subunit, which joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of ribosomal proteins (r-protein ).
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Mitochondrion. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion.
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Mitochondrion, Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion.
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Each of a number of flattened sacs inside a chloroplast , bounded by pigmented membranes on which the light reactions of photosynthesis take place, and arranged in stacks or grana.
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Mitochondrion, Britannica https://www.britannica.com/science/mitochondrion.
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The breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic and lactic acid .
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Photosynthesis CO2 + 2H2O + photons → [CH2O] + O2 + H2O. Plants, some bacteria and some one-cell organisms use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water , a reaction which releases oxygen .
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Hydrogen Production: Photobiological https://energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/hydrogen-production-photobiological.
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Chemical process in which oxygen is used to make energy from carbohydrates (sugars ).
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The metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
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All tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular.
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Plants specifically, parenchyma cells are thin-walled cells that make up the inside of many non-woody plant structures including stems, roots, and leaves.
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The epidermis is the outer layer of the three layers that make up the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis.
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Poriferans are commonly referred to as sponges .
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Serpentinization involves the hydrolysis and transformation of primary ferromagnesian minerals such as olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) and pyroxenes ((Mg,Fe)SiO3) to produce H2-rich fluids and a variety of secondary minerals over a wide range of environmental conditions. The continual and elevated production of H2 is capable of reducing carbon , thus initiating an inorganic pathway to produce organic compounds.
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Methanogens are prokaryotic Archaea microorganisms that produce methane (CH4) as a metabolic byproduct in anoxic conditions.
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Acetogenic microbes generate acetate (CH3COO−) as an end product of anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
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Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane , down their electrochemical gradient. An example of this would be the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis .
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Stromatoporoids are layered sponges , filter feeders, that collected particulate organic debris floating in the water .
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Hermatypic corals are those corals in the order Scleractinia which build reefs by depositing hard calcareous material for their skeletons, forming the stony framework of the reef .
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Ammonoid or Ammonites are an extinct group of marine animals of the subclass Ammonoidea in the class Cephalopoda, phylum Mollusca.
- 52.
Minute toothlike fossil composed of the mineral apatite (calcium phosphate ); conodonts are among the most frequently occurring fossils in marine sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age.
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A large group of flagellate eukaryotes that constitute the phylum Dinoflagellata. Most are marine plankton, but they also are common in freshwater habitats.
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A yellowish-brown symbiotic dinoflagellate present in large numbers in the cytoplasm of many marine invertebrates .
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An organism obtaining energy from sunlight to synthesize organic compounds for nutrition .
- 56.
Synergy : The creation of a whole that is greater than the simple sum of its parts.
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A genome is an organism ’s complete set of DNA , including all of its genes. Each genome contains all of the information needed to build and maintain that organism . In humans, a copy of the entire genome —more than 3 billion DNA base pairs—is contained in all cells that have a nucleus .
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Self-organized criticality , Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-organized_criticality.
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A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across different scales. They are created by repeating a simple process over and over in an ongoing feedback loop.
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Mitochondria are organelles that are virtually cells within a cell . The most prominent roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the cell , ATP (i.e., phosphorylation of ADP), through respiration, and to regulate cellular metabolism .
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Layered mounds, columns, and sheet-like sedimentary rocks. They were originally formed by the growth of layer upon layer of cyanobacteria , a single-celled photosynthesizing microbe that lives today in a wide range of environments ranging from the shallow shelf to lakes, rivers, and even soils.
- 63.
Process by which plants and bacteria use energy from sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water , releasing oxygen in the process.
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Any group of animals with a body composed of cells differentiated into tissues and organs and usually a digestive cavity lined w The growth or movement of a fixed organism , especially a plant , toward or away from sunlight. ith specialized cells.
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The growth or movement of a fixed organism toward or away from sunlight.
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An autotroph is an organism that can produce its own food using light, water , carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.
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The production of methane by bacteria or other living organisms .
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A phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis .
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The decomposition or separation of molecules by the action of light.
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Similar characteristics in two animals that are a product of descent from a common ancestor rather than a product of a similar environment.
- 71.
Science Alert (2017) This 530-Million-Year-Old Fossil Could Be The Oldest Eye Ever Discovered. https://sciencealert.com/oldest-eye-ever-evolution-fossil-evidence-530-million-years-trilobite.
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Intelligent Design . Evolution FAQ and Wikipedia. http://evolutionfaq.com/faq/category/intelligent-design.
- 73.
Is the idea that certain biological systems cannot evolve by successive small modifications to pre-existing functional systems through natural selection .
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Jürgen Tautz (2002) More than the sum of all parts. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084073/.
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Glikson, A.Y. (2019). From the Genetic Code to Collective Brains. In: From Stars to Brains: Milestones in the Planetary Evolution of Life and Intelligence. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10603-4_3
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