Abstract
Many people around the world who have wanted a more democratic future that safeguarded fundamental rights in the Arab World willingly surfed on the wave of optimism during the initial phases of the Arab revolts. It was understandable to expect the Assad regime in Syria to go in a short time the way of Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali’s and Hosni Mubarak’s. If “people power” did not suffice, so the unrealistic expectation went, a Western military intervention would settle the matter.
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Notes
- 1.
David Ignatius, “Is Trump Handing Putin a Victory in Syria”, Washington Post, June 28, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/is-trump-handing-putin-a-victory-in-syria/2018/06/28/a853657a-7b14-11e8-93cc-6d3beccdd7a3_story.html?utm_term=.227425b72eb3.
- 2.
Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGrawHill, 1979).
- 3.
Ibid.
- 4.
Murat Yetkin, “The End of Turkey’s ‘Precious Loneliness’?”, Hurriyet Daily News, June 18, 2016, available at http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/murat-yetkin/the-end-of-turkeys-precious-loneliness-100622.
- 5.
Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).
- 6.
William R. Polk, “Understanding Syria: From Pre-Civil War to Post-Assad”, The Atlantic, December 10, 2013, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post-assad/281989/.
- 7.
Douglas Little, “Cold War and Covert Action: The United States and Syria, 1945–1958”, Middle East Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1, Winter 1990, pp. 51–75.
- 8.
Amos Harel and Aluf Benn, “No Longer a Secret: How Israel Destroyed Syria’s Nuclear Reactor”, Ha’aretz Magazine, March 23, 2018, https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/MAGAZINE-no-longer-a-secret-how-israel-destroyed-syria-s-nuclear-reactor-1.5914407.
- 9.
Itamar Rabinovich, Israel’s View of the Syrian Crisis, Analysis Paper Number 28, Brookings, November 2012.
- 10.
Behlül Özkan, “Relations Between Turkey and Syria in the 1980’s and 1990’s: Political Islam, Muslim Brotherhood and Intelligence Wars”, Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi, No. 59, forthcoming issue.
- 11.
Mahmut Bali Aykan, “The Turkish Syrian Crisis of October 1998: A Turkish View”, Middle East Policy, Vol. VI, No, 4, June 1999, pp. 174–175.
- 12.
Reem Abou El-Fadl, “Turkey’s Cold War Alliance: Nation-Building and the Utility of the Syrian Crisis”, eds. Raymond Hinnebusch and Özlem Tür, Turkey-Syria Relations Between Enmity and Amity, 39–54.
- 13.
Ayşegül Sever, Soğuk Savaş Kuşatmasında Türkiye, Batı ve Orta Doğu 1945–1958 (İstanbul: Boyut Yayınları, 1997).
- 14.
“For Turkey the crisis was part of the traditional conflict with her regional rival, Syria. In terms of NATO strategy a Soviet-Syrian rapprochement would enable Moscow to ‘leapfrog’ the Turkish barrier and establish her influence in the Middle East. Ankara’s militant anti-Soviet attitude was reinforced by close contacts with Tel Aviv and Ben Gurion’s secret diplomatic attempts to build up an anti-communist ‘periphery alliance’ with Turkey, Iran and Ethiopia.” Philip Anderson, “‘Summer Madness’: The Crisis in Syria, August-October 1957”, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 22, No. 1–2, 1995, p. 38.
- 15.
Clive Jones and Tore T. Peterson, Israel’s Clandestine Diplomacies.
- 16.
See Ofra Bengio, The Turkish–Israeli Relationship: Changing Ties of Middle Eastern Outsiders (New York: Palgrave, 2004), 52–53. See also, Yossi Alpher, Periphery: Israel’s Search for Middle East Allies (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 11–28.
- 17.
Shira Efron, ibid.
- 18.
“İsrail’den Sürpriz Tavır: Vurmak Yanlış”, Milliyet, October 5, 1998.
- 19.
“Suriye elimizde”, Milliyet, October 9, 1998.
- 20.
Defense agreements signed between Turkey and Israel in the second half of the 1990s provided modernization of the Turkish Armed Forces. When the crisis with Syria broke out in late September 1998, Ankara maintained a clear military edge over Damascus. In addition to this, the ambiguity about the scope of security cooperation between Turkey and Israel, whether the agreement signed in 1994 actually comprised a collective defense clause—might have deterred Syria from escalating the crisis further, given the fact that these two countries geographically encircled Syria from both the north and the south. See, Ofra Bengio, The Turkish–Israeli Relationship: Changing Ties of Middle Eastern Outsiders (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 108.
- 21.
“U.S. Helped Turkey Find and Capture Kurd Rebel”, The New York Times, February 25, 1999, available at https://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/20/world/us-helped-turkey-find-and-capture-kurd-rebel.html. “Demirel’den ABD’ye teşekkür”, Milliyet, February 20, 1999. Zafer Arapkirli, “Mossad’la Derin ortaklık”, Milliyet, February 22, 1999. In an interview for an Israeli radio, Öcalan’s lawyer, Zeki Okçuoğlu-based on Öcalan’s statements claims that the plane which brought Öcalan to Turkey had made two stops along the way, one in Egypt and the other in Israel. “Apo’yu getiren uçak İsrail’e indi”, Milliyet, March 1, 1999. Kasım Cindemir, “Müthiş İtiraflar”, Hürriyet, June 4, 2001, available at http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/dunya/muthis-itiraflar-39246807.
- 22.
Marwan Kabalan, “Syrian-Turkish Relations: Geopolitical Explanations for the Move from Conflict to Cooperation”, pp. 28–29.
- 23.
“Türkiye aktif bir dış politika ortaya koydu”, TRT Haber, May 29, 2014, available at http://www.trthaber.com/haber/gundem/turkiye-aktif-bir-dis-politika-ortaya-koydu-129348.html. “Turkey Boasts ‘Sixth-Largest’ Diplomatic Network in the World”, Hürriyet Daily News, December 26, 2016, available at http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkey-boasts-sixth-largest-diplomatic-network-in-the-world-----107780.
- 24.
“Beşşar Esad, Mehmet Ali Birand’a konuştu”, Posta, November 8, 2009, available at http://www.posta.com.tr/yazarlar/mehmet-ali-birand/bessar-esad-mehmet-ali-biranda-konustu-6962.
- 25.
Al-Assad’s visit was the first ever by a Syrian head of state to Turkey.
- 26.
“Alon Liel: Israel Rejected Syrian Bid for Wartime Talks”, Haaretz, January 17, 2007, available at https://www.haaretz.com/1.4951840.
- 27.
See Aluf Benn, “Converging Interests: Essential, but Not Enough”, INSS, Vol. 11, No. 1, June 2008, available at http://www.inss.org.il/he/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/systemfiles/Benn_English_final_for%20site.pdf.
- 28.
“Olmert Şam’a saldırıyı doğruladı, Türkiye’den özür diledi”, Hurriyet, October 29, 2007, available at http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/dunya/olmert-sam-a-saldiriyi-dogruladi-turkiye-den-ozur-diledi-7576886.
- 29.
“Syria and Israel Officially Confirm Peace Talks”, The Guardian, May 21, 2008, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/21/israelandthepalestinians.syria.
- 30.
From the Office of the White House Press Secretary, “Fact Sheet: Implementing the Syria Accountability and Lebanese Sovereignty Restoration Act of 2003”, May 11, 2004, available at https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/05/20040511-7.html.
- 31.
“Suriye’den Sınır Tanıyan Anlaşma”, Milliyet, January 6, 2004.
- 32.
Israeli, “Water for Arms Deal with Turkey”, The Guardian, January 6, 2004, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jan/06/turkey.israel.
- 33.
“Erdoğan: Füzeyle Barış Sağlanamaz”, Milliyet, April 19, 2004.
- 34.
“Şaron Darbesi”, Milliyet, May 21, 2004. See also, “İsrail’e sert Tepki”, Milliyet, May 26, 2004.
- 35.
“Turkey Scolds Israel After Uproar Over Visit of Hamas Chief”, Haaretz, February 18, 2006, available at https://www.haaretz.com/1.4892851.
- 36.
Erdoğan, “Ciddi İnsanlık Suçu”, Milliyet, December 29, 2008.
- 37.
“Türk-İsrail Dostluk Grubuna Son Darbe: BAşkan MEmecan da İstifa etti”, Timeturk, January 3, 2009, available at http://www.turktime.com/haber/turk-israil-dostluk-grubuna-son-darbe-baskan-memecan-da-istifa-etti/42100.
- 38.
Interview notes.
- 39.
“Leaders of Turkey and Israel Clash at Davos Panel”, The New York Times, January 29, 2009, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/30/world/europe/30clash.html.
- 40.
“Turkey Confirms It Barred Israel from Military Exercise Because of Gaza War”, The Guardian, January 12, 2009, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/oct/12/turkey-israel-military-gaza.
- 41.
“Türkiye ve Suriye artık vize sormayacak”, NTV, September 16, 2009, available at https://www.ntv.com.tr/turkiye/turkiye-ve-suriye-artik-vize-sormayacak,-UzbXQwtCk-Oezl115y5MQ. See also, Joint Statement of the First Meeting of the High Level Strategic Cooperation Council Between the Syrian Arab Republic and the Republic of Turkey, Damascus, December 22–23, 2009, available at http://www.mfa.gov.tr/turkiye---suriye-ydsik-1_-toplantisi-ortak-bildirisi_-22-23-aralik_-sam.en.mfa.
- 42.
“Turkish TV Show Portrays Israelis as Baby Snatchers”, Ynet News, January 10, 2010, available at https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3832876,00.html.
- 43.
“İsrail’le ‘alçak koltuk’ krizi”, Milliyet, January 13, 2010, available at http://www.milliyet.com.tr/israil-le--alcak-koltuk--krizi-gundem-1185364/.
- 44.
“Israeli Attack on Gaza Flotilla Sparks International Outrage”, The Guardian, May 31, 2010, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/31/israeli-attacks-gaza-flotilla-activists.
- 45.
Report of the Secretary-General’s Panel of Inquiry on the 31 May 2010 Flotilla Incident, www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/middle_east/Gaza_Flotilla_Panel_Report.pdf.
- 46.
“In stark contrast to the anti-Israeli rhetoric, diplomatic channels were kept open and functioned…However, close examination of cases in which the JDP leadership resorted to antagonistic rhetoric suggest a different Picture when it comes to mundane realities of bilateral relations. It is interesting to note that even during the crises, the gap between Ankara’s hostile rhetoric and the silent cooperation with Tel Aviv was never bridged…Given the rampant anti-Semitic media campaigns, hostile rhetoric had enormous impact on the public opinion in Turkey. Therefore, it is still to be seen whether future governments in Ankara and Tel Aviv would be able to cultivate a constructive relationship on the residuum of the inimical discourse carelessly used”. Gencer Özcan, “The JDP’s Changing Discursive Strategies Towards Israel: Rhetoric vs. Reality”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Vol. 15, No. 57, 2018, p. 32.
- 47.
Şaban Kardaş, “Türk-İsrail krizi: Moral politikadan çatışmaya?”, Görüş, Ekim 2011, https://tusiad.org/tr/…/4651_ac31637a3be8fa1cf5d2a460bba65e55. In this article published in the heat of the Arab revolts Kardaş contends, in explaining why after Mavi Marmara neither side made the necessary effort to alleviate relations, that “Turkish decision makers’ two assumptions informed their understanding of Israel and the region. Turkey believes that the balance of power in the region is in her favor and believes that she can develop independent policies in the region.” See also, Burak Bilgehan Özbek and Yelda Demirağ, “Turkish Foreign Policy After the ‘Arab Spring’: From Agenda Setter State to Agenda-Entrepreneur State”, Israel Affairs, Vol. 20, No. 3, 2014, pp. 328–346.
- 48.
Raymond Hinnebusch, “‘Back to Enmity’ Turkey-Syria Relations Since the Syrian Uprising”, Orient, No. 1, 2015, p. 14.
- 49.
Ibid.
- 50.
Itamar Rabinovich, Israel’s View of the Syrian Crisis, Analysis Paper Number 28, The Saban Center for Middle East Policy at Brookings, November 2012.
- 51.
Barak Ravid, “Israeli Government Sharply Divided Over Response to Syria Unrest”, Ha’aretz, February 16, 2012, https://www.haaretz.com/1.5186386.
- 52.
Ibid., p. i.
- 53.
Shira Efron, The Future of Israeli-Turkish Relations, Rand Corporation, 2018.
- 54.
Elizabeth Tsurkov, “Israel’s Deepening Involvement with Syria’s Rebels”, War on the Rocks, February 14, 2018, https://warontherocks.com/2018/02/israels-deepening-involvement-syrias-rebels/. Aaron Stein, “Fear and Loathing in the Levant: Turkey Changes Its Syria Policy and Strategy”, War on the Rocks, June 16, 2016, https://warontherocks.com/2016/06/fear-and-loathing-in-the-levant-turkey-changes-its-syria-policy-and-strategy/.
- 55.
“In Syria, Turkey had provided ISIS with weapons and training, allowed free movement across its borders by jihadists, gave them control of two critical crossing points, permitted recruitment in Turkey, and allowed ISIS to sell Syrian crude oil via Turkey, with USD 100 million estimated hidden in Turkish banks”. Raymond Hinnebusch, “Back to Enmity: Turkey-Syria Relations Since the Syrian Uprising”, Orient, No. 1, 2015, p. 18.
- 56.
“Turkey’s bid for regional hegemony was increasingly framed in terms of the Sunni Islamic identity Turkey shared with the Arab World. This was all the more so as Turkey’s main competition in Syria and for regional hegemony was Iran, at the head of a Shia-dominated ‘resistance axis’ in which Syria was the weakest link. While Turkey deployed its Sunni Islamist identity instrumentally it contributed to a dangerous sectarianisation of the region.” Hinnebusch, ibid., p. 16.
- 57.
- 58.
The New York Times, June 11, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/12/world/middleeast/militants-seize-turkish-consulate-staff-in-mosul.html.
- 59.
Al Arabiya, August 6, 2014, http://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2014/08/06/U-N-condemns-ISIS-attacks-in-Iraq.html.
- 60.
Rudaw, September 16, 2014, http://www.rudaw.net/english/interview/16092014.
- 61.
- 62.
CNN, October 17, 2014, https://edition.cnn.com/2014/10/16/world/meast/isis-threat/index.html.
- 63.
Bipartisan Policy Center, April 6, 2015, https://edition.cnn.com/2014/10/16/world/meast/isis-threat/index.html.
- 64.
The periphery doctrine (torat haperipheria) is often referred to as the grand strategy advanced in the mid-1950s by Prime Minister David Ben Gurion and close aides, such as Reuven Shiloah, the founder of Mossad, and Iser Harel, who headed both the Mossad and Shin Bet (Israel’s domestic intelligence service). The doctrine was never embodied in an official document or directive, meaning the actual content was never defined. However, the basic idea rested on Israel’s pursuit of a partnership with regional actors, particularly non-Arab and/or non-Muslim states, as well as minority groups/peoples in order to counter Arab hostility. In this regard, Israel’s strategic and intelligence alliance with Turkey (1956–1958) and Iran (1956–1979) during the Cold War consituted the northern leg of the periphery doctrine, while cooperation with Ethiopia and Sudan created a security triangle in the south. Israel’s support for the Kurds and Maronites in the region can also be considered a component of the periphery doctrine. See Yossi Alpher, Periphery: Israel’s Search for Middle East Allies (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).
- 65.
Lale Sarıibrahimoğlu, “İsrail, terör anlaşmasına karşı”, Cumhuriyet, November 17, 1993. See also, Barçın Yinanç, “Güvenlik anlaşması rafa kaldırıldı”, Milliyet, April 21, 1994.
- 66.
Three people were killed and 14 were wounded when PKK supporters stormed the Israeli Consulate in Berlin in February 1999. Several demonstrations took place in various cities protesting Israel’s alleged involvement in Öcalan’s capture in Kenya. See Roger Cohen, “3 Kurds Shot Dead by Israeli Guards at Berlin Protest”, The New York Times, February 18, 1999, http://www.nytimes.com/1999/02/18/world/3-kurds-shot-dead-by-israeli-guards-at-berlin-protest.html.
- 67.
Simon Hersh, “Plan B”, The New Yorker, June 28, 2004, available at https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2004/06/28/plan-b-2. “İsrail’e güvenmek gerek”, Radikal, June 23, 2004, available at http://www.radikal.com.tr/yorum/gul-israile-guvenmek-gerek-714694/.
- 68.
Interview.
- 69.
“IŞİD Gazze’ye girmeye hazırlanıyor”, Al Jazeera Turk, April 14, 2014, available at http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/isid-gazzeye-girmeye-hazirlaniyor. “IŞİD’den Hamas’a tehdit”, Al Jazeera Turk, July 1, 2015, available at http://www.aljazeera.com.tr/haber/isidden-hamasa-tehdit. “Hamas Claims to Arrest Senior Islamic State Leaders in Gaza”, Times of Israel, October 7, 2017, available at https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-arrests-senior-islamic-state-leaders-in-gaza-report/.
- 70.
“IŞİD militanlarından İsrail’e roket saldırısı”, Milliyet, June 5, 2015, available at http://www.milliyet.com.tr/isid-militanlarindan-israil-e/dunya/detay/2083340/default.htm.
- 71.
“Jerusalem Stabbing: ISIS Claims First Deadly Attack in Israel”, Newsweek, June 17, 2017, available at http://www.newsweek.com/isis-claims-first-deadly-attack-israel-after-jerusalem-stabbing-626934.
- 72.
“Netanyahu Links Hamas with ISIS, and Equates ISIS with Iran”, The New York Times, September 24, 2014, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/world/middleeast/pentagon-program-islamic-state-syria.html.
- 73.
Elizabeth Tsurkov, “Israel’s Deepening Involvement with Syria’s Rebels”, War on the Rocks, February 14, 2014, available at https://warontherocks.com/2018/02/israels-deepening-involvement-syrias-rebels/. “Israel Acknowledges It Is Helping Syrian Rebel Fighters”, Times of Israel, June 29, 2015, available at https://www.timesofisrael.com/yaalon-syrian-rebels-keeping-druze-safe-in-exchange-for-israeli-aid/.
- 74.
“Obama Administration Ends Effort to Train Syrians to Combat ISIS”, The New York Times, October 9, 2015, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/world/middleeast/pentagon-program-islamic-state-syria.html.
- 75.
Ibid.
- 76.
Gencer Özcan, 2000li yıllarda Türkiye Dış Politikası (2002–2016), Boğaziçi Üniversitesi-TÜSİAD Diş Politika Forumu, Mayıs 2018, p. 38.
- 77.
Gencer Özcan, ibid., pp. 31–39.
- 78.
Even after having aligned himself with İran in the Astana process, Turkish President Tayyip Erdoğan during a visit to the Gulf in February 2017 warned his audience about “Persian nationalism” and asked them to drop sectarian imagery. Serdar Demirel, “Erdoğan: ‘Fars milliyetçiliği var’”, Akit, February 16, 2017, http://www.yeniakit.com.tr/yazarlar/serdar-demirel/erdogan-fars-milliyetciligi-var-18301.html.
- 79.
- 80.
“Gazze’ye yardım taşıyan ‘Lady Leyla’ Aşdod’a ulaştı”, BBC News, July 4, 2016, available at https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler/2016/07/160703_lady_leyla_gazze.
- 81.
“YPG, Türkiye’nin ‘kırmızı çizgimiz’ dediği Fırat’ın ötesine geçti”, Sputnik News, December 26, 2015, available at https://tr.sputniknews.com/ortadogu/201512261019884067-ypg-suriye-turkiye-firat-kobani/.
- 82.
“Erdoğan: Türkiye ve İsrail’in birbirine ihtiyacı var”, Posta, January 2, 2016, available at http://www.posta.com.tr/erdogan-turkiye-ve-israilin-birbirine-ihtiyaci-var-320014.
- 83.
“Istanbul Hit by Suicide Attack”, The Guardian, March 19, 2016, available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/19/istanbul-hit-by-deadly-bomb-attack.
- 84.
“NATO Okays Israel Office in Its Brussels Headquarters After Turkey Lifts Veto”, Haaretz, May 4, 2016, available at https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-nato-okays-israel-office-in-its-brussels-hq-after-turkey-lifts-veto-1.5379284.
- 85.
Shira Efron, “The Future of Israeli-Turkish Relations”, RAND Corporation, 2018.
- 86.
“Trump Recognizes Jerusalem as Israel’s Capital, Reversing Longtime U.S. Policy”, Reuters, December 6, 2017, available at https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trump-israel/trump-recognizes-jerusalem-as-israels-capital-reversing-longtime-u-s-policy-idUSKBN1E01PS.
- 87.
“Turkey and Israel Expel Envoys Over Gaza Deaths”, Haaretz, May 16, 2018, available at https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/turkey-expels-israel-s-ambassador-due-to-gaza-death-toll-1.6092965.
- 88.
David Ignatius, “Is Trump Handing Putin a Victory in Syria?”, Washington Post, June 28, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/is-trump-handing-putin-a-victory-in-syria/2018/06/28/a853657a-7b14-11e8-93cc-6d3beccdd7a3_story.html?utm_term=.227425b72eb3.
- 89.
“Greece Joins Israel-USA Military Exercise in Southern Mediterranean”, Greek Reporter, March 28, 2012, available at http://greece.greekreporter.com/2012/03/28/greece-joins-israel-usa-military-exercise-in-southern-mediterranean/. “Israeli Fighter Jets Challenge Cypriot Air Defense in Mock Battle Exercise”, Defense Update, February 17, 2014, available at https://defense-update.com/20140217_israel_cyprus_air_force_exercise.html. See also, Panos Nastos, “Greek Israeli-Cyprus Military and Security Relations”, RIEAS, December 15, 2013, available at http://www.rieas.gr/researchareas/2014-07-30-08-58-27/greek-israel-studies/2077-greek-israeli-cyprus-military-and-security-relations-a-preview.
- 90.
“Israel, Cyprus, and Greece Push East Med Gas Pipeline to Europe”, Times of Israel, May 8, 2018, available at https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-cyprus-and-greece-push-east-med-gas-pipeline-to-europe/.
- 91.
“Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan’dan önemli açıklamalar!”, Milliyet, April 19, 2017, available at http://www.milliyet.com.tr/cumhurbaskani-erdogan-dan-onemli-siyaset-2435558/.
- 92.
Shira Efron, “The Future of Israeli-Turkish Relations”, Rand Corporation 2018, available at https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR2400/RR2445/RAND_RR2445.pdf.
- 93.
Steven Heydemann, “Beyond Fragility: Syria and the Challenges of Reconstruction in Fierce States”, Foreign Policy at Brookings, June 2018, p. 3.
- 94.
Eyal Zisser, “The Old Syria Returns, Sooner Than Expected”, Israel Hayom, January 3, 2018.
- 95.
“In sum, the economic legacies of a corrupt, authoritarian, predatory, and coercive regime were evident in how wartime economic orders came to be constructed in the period from 2011 to the present, whether in regime-held or in opposition-held areas of Syria. This continuity in economic norms and practices has shaped a post-conflict landscape conducive to a regime-controlled process of reconstruction even in areas long held by opposition forces.” See, Heydemann, op. cit.
- 96.
For an assessment about Turkey, “Prof. Dr. M. Murat Erdoğan: Göç politikanız olmazsa çatışma kaçınılmaz olur”, https://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/prof-dr-m-murat-erdogan-goc-politikaniz-olmazsa-catisma-kacinilmaz-olur-222265.html.
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Özel, S., Nasi, S. (2019). How the Syrian Civil War Shifted the Balance of Power in Turkish–Israeli Relations. In: Sever, A., Almog, O. (eds) Contemporary Israeli–Turkish Relations in Comparative Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05786-2_6
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