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Feeding Occupied France during World War I pp 249–300Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Time of Contradictions: Supply in the Heart of the Total War Spring 1917–Fall 1918

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Abstract

Germany had 100 U-boats in 1917. Berlin launched all-out submarine warfare to loosen the cruel blockade, devastating merchant Allied and neutral shipping. America entered the war in April 1917, and the CRB was no longer neutral. The question of the future of the Belgian and French relief had to be addressed. The CRB was too important for all parties. No one wanted starving populations. The CRB continued its work from London while, on the ground, Dutch and Spanish delegates had to substitute the Americans. Called by Woodrow Wilson, Hoover became the US Food Administrator, but still chairing the CRB. The Commission faced significant challenges in finding a place among the Executives based in London. Major freight and financial crises jeopardized dangerously the supply to occupied civilians.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The liberation of territory was prepared as of September 30, 1916, during an inter-ministerial committee meeting to help the reconstruction of the invaded regions. It was chaired by Leon Bourgeois. The Minister of War and the High Command had announced that the army would assist so that populations could be supplied during the first 3 days. In the British zone, the same insurance could not be given.

  2. 2.

    Etienne Clémentel, La France et la politique économique interalliée, Paris, PUF, Publication of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1931.

  3. 3.

    MAE, 440, no. 216, MAE APC, memorandum to the parliamentarians of the North, Delesalle and Trépont, February 10, 1917.

  4. 4.

    MAE, 446, no. 89 et seq. on the way in which diplomats seek to counter British threats to ban transport in May 1917.

  5. 5.

    MAE, 440, no. 186, Numerical telegram, from MAE Margerie, for the four posts: Washington, London, Le Havre, The Hague, February 5, 1917.

  6. 6.

    MAE, 440, no. 254, from MAE Paris to London, February 13, 1917; MAE, 440, no. 188 et seq. Minutes of the President of the MAE Council, conference of February 7, 1917 on the supply of the north of France.

  7. 7.

    MAE, 440, no. 253, MAE Paris, telegram, February 13, 1917. For flour for example, it went from 180 to 80 g of native flour and from 100 to 40 g of foreign flour, 50 to 30 g of bacon, etc. and for all commodities a decrease of one-third to one-half.

  8. 8.

    MAE, 441, no. 193, telegram from MAE Paris to all posts presenting the position of Allizé, February 20, 1917.

  9. 9.

    MAE, 441, no. 123, Telegram from the Rotterdam office of the CRB concerning the reduction of rations imposed by the Germans in the north of France, February 11, 1917 transmitted by Chevrillon, CRB Paris, to Laroche, MAE.

  10. 10.

    MAE, 441, no. 229, Supply of the North, testimony of Mrs. Raux, February 21, 1917, 4 pp.

  11. 11.

    von der Lancken, Governing in Occupied Belgium … op. cit., Report February—end of July 1917.

  12. 12.

    MAE, 440, no. 146, confidential note on the situation created by the new phase of the submarine war and by the German-American rupture, 4 pp. Some American delegates feared, however, that the influence of German far-right would be more echoed and would not hesitate to turn food supplies into a means of pressure, the French and Belgian populations being the first victims of a famine threatening Germany; MAE, 440, no. 190, confidential letter from, Cambon, London, to President of the Council, MAE, February 8, 1917.

  13. 13.

    William B. Poland, trained at MIT, a man of great experience, for a time chief engineer of the Philippine Railways. Speaking a little French, he offered his services for a few months. First present from September 1915–October 1916 in the Brussels office, he then left for London. He took over from Hoover at the end of March 1917 and became general administrator for Europe. He remained in this position until 1919. See CRB, box no. 316, for his offer of services and his curriculum vitae. See also MAE, 447, no. 265, Poland.

  14. 14.

    MAE, 441, no. 132, telegram Geoffray, Madrid, to MAE, Paris. It is possible that there was confusion between officers (military) and officer (civil servant) as suggested by the Ambassador of France in Madrid, Leon Geoffray (1852–1927), the sending of soldiers had not been mentioned in Madrid.

  15. 15.

    MAE, 441, no. 71, telegram from Cambon, London, to MAE, Paris, February 15, 1917; MAE, no. 443. There are many documents on Spanish susceptibility in this file.

  16. 16.

    MAE, 441, no. 107, telegram from Paul Cambon, London, to MAE, Paris February 16, 1917.

  17. 17.

    MAE, 442, no. 36, telegram from Paul Cambon, London to MAE, Paris, March 3, 1917.

  18. 18.

    Johan den Hertog, The CRB and the Political Diplomatic History … op. cit., Diplomacy and Statecraft, p. 603.

  19. 19.

    MAE, 441, no. 220, copy of the telegram from the Ambassador of Spain in Berlin on the response of the MAE concerning the CRB, February 21, 1917.

  20. 20.

    MAE, 440, no. 146; MAE, 440 no. 190, see, footnote 12 above.

  21. 21.

    MAE, 440, no. 115, telegram from MAE to the representatives of France in London, The Hague, February 7, 1917 and no. 224, telegram from MAE APC to Washington, February 11, 1917, recapitulating the situation and the steps.

  22. 22.

    MAE, 442, no. 16, copy of Foreign Office letter to Paul Cambon, March 1, 1917.

  23. 23.

    MAE, 441, no. 115, telegram from Cambon, London, to MAE Paris, February 16, 1917.

  24. 24.

    MAE, 441, no. 12, telegram from MAE APC, to Cambon, London, February 14, 1917; Paris had received from the USA information emphasizing the Germanophile character of Villalobar.

  25. 25.

    MAE, 441, no. 246, from President of the Council, MAE, to Paul Cambon, London, February 23, 1917.

  26. 26.

    MAE, 442, no. 69, telegram from APC to Paul Cambon, London, March 7, 1917.

  27. 27.

    MAE, 444, no. 160, telegram from MAE Paris to London and Le Havre, March 12, 1917.

  28. 28.

    MAE, 445, no. 4, copy telegram from Hoover to Merry del Val, April 20, 1917.

  29. 29.

    In his book, The Art of staying Neutral … op. cit., Marrtje Abbenhuis does not dwell on this point, she quotes incidentally the CRB.

  30. 30.

    Vollenhoven, Maurice van, Les vraies ambassades, Elsevier, Paris-Bruxelles, 1954.

  31. 31.

    MAE, 446, no. 18 et seq., telegram from London on the functions of the CHN, May 1, 1917.

  32. 32.

    Le Comité Hispano-Néerlandais pour la Protection du ravitaillement en Belgique et dans le Nord de la France, Foreword, Summary of Its Interventions, Official Records, undated, Antwerp, 287 pp. A copy is kept at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France.

  33. 33.

    von der Lancken, Governing in occupied Belgium … op. cit. Activity Report from the beginning of August 1917 to the end of January 1918, p. 315 et seq.

  34. 34.

    von der Lancken, Governing in Occupied Belgium … op. cit.; H. Hoover, An American Epic … op. cit., p. 374. The steamer carried a little less than 5000 tonnes of cereals; and MAE, 445, no. 46 et seq., copy of the note from the Brussels Political Bureau to the Marquis de Villalobar on the conditions for boarding a ship, 7 pp. To summarize: The ship was in a forbidden zone and the officer commanding the German submarine had been zealous.

  35. 35.

    von der Lancken, Governing in Occupied Belgium … op. cit. Report, early August 1917 end of January 1918.

  36. 36.

    SHD 13 N 65, telegram from La Hay to Allizé, 15 August 1917, for instance 4 million eggs were purchased with the agreement of the French Minister.

  37. 37.

    Arch. Nat. F 23/157 includes several notes and documents relating to the role of the USA in the blockade and the measures taken. For the general framework, see E. W. Osborne, Britain’s Economic Blockade … op. cit.

  38. 38.

    To which must be added fats, fodder/food for cattle, coal, oil, gasoline, iron, steel, ferromanganese, fertilizers, weapons, ammunition, and explosives. A Foreign and Domestic Trade Bureau was responsible for the licensing review, Archives nationales F 23/157, Note Blockade, to the Minister of Supply, July 12, 1917.

  39. 39.

    E. W. Osborne, Britain’s Economic Blockade … op. cit., p. 163.

  40. 40.

    Idem., pp. 168–169, citing the French data collated by Guichard.

  41. 41.

    In London, at the end of 1917, Paul Cambon asked de Fleuriau to set up a follow-up group, composed of Avenol, representing Finance, Lubersac and Révillon, for Maritime Transport, Monnet for Food Supply, J.-C. Charpentier for the Ministry of Blockade, see F 23/157, MAE—APC to Paul Cambon, December 18, 1917, and MAE—APC to Paul Cambon and Stephen Pichon, Minister of Foreign Affairs, December 12, 1917, 3 pp., giving an update on the discussions between Paris, London, and Washington.

  42. 42.

    Cited by Thomas A. Bailey, The Policy of the United States to the Neutrals, 1917–1918, Baltimore, The John Hopkins Press, 1942, p. 38. The classic work of Kathleen Burk, Britain, America and the Sinews of War, 1914–1918, Boston, George Allen and Unwin, 1985, provides useful information on the Balfour mission of April–May 1917 concerning the mobilization of resources and men; the study on the other hand is little interested in the Merchant Navy.

  43. 43.

    T. A. Bailey, The Policy … op. cit., pp. 37 and 38; the files of the Quai d’Orsay include many exchanges concerning the risks of massive slaughter of the cattle; they were limited as the leaders of the CRB and Hoover had predicted.

  44. 44.

    See, T. A. Bailey, The Policy … op. cit., chapter The Negotiations with Holland, especially the note on p. 218. It is recalled that the book appeared in 1942. The author had the opportunity to interview many witnesses, whom he called his informants, many wished at the time to remain anonymous.

  45. 45.

    Burton J. Hendrick, The Life and Letters of Walter H. Page, vol. III, containing the Letter to Woodrow Wilson, Wiliam Heinemann London, 1925:

    “Memoranda, December 30, 1916. Written, not for the sake of the gentleman mentioned, but for possible help to the President and Service:

    Hoover:

    Mr. Herbert C Hoover, Chairman of the Commission for Relief in Belgium, would, if opportunity should offer, make a useful officer in the State Department. He is probably the only man who has privately (i.e., without holding office) negotiated understanding with the British, French, German, Dutch, Belgian governments. He personally knows and has had direct dealings with these governments, and his transactions with them have involved several hundred million dollars. He is a man of very considerable fortune — less than when the war began, for this relief work has cost him much. He was approached on behalf of the British Government with the suggestion that if he would become a British subject the Government would be pleased to give him an important executive post and with the hint that if he succeeded a title might await him. His answer was “I’ll do what I can for you with pleasure; but I’ll be damned if I’ll give up my American citizenship — not on your life!”. Within the last six months two large financial organizations, each independently have offered him $100,000 a year to enter their service: and an industrial company offered him $100.000 “to start with”. He declined them all. When the Belgian relief work recently struck a financial snag, Hoover by telegraph got the promise of a loan in the United States to the British and French governments for Belgian relief of $150,000,000! I do not know, but I think he would be glad to turn his European experience to the patriotic use of our government. He is forty-two years old, a graduate of Leland Stanford Jr. University.”

  46. 46.

    Francis William O’Brien, The Hoover-Wilson Wartime Correspondence, September 24, 1914 to November 11, 1918, The Iowa State University Press, Iowa, 1974.

  47. 47.

    Idem., p. 21.

  48. 48.

    E. Clémentel, La France et la politique économique interalliée … op. cit., p. 97.

  49. 49.

    SHD 13 N 10 Tardieu, Re: Inter-Allied Commissions, letter from Paul Cambon, French Embassy, London, to the Chairman of the Council; official suggestions from Mr. Hoover on the Allied Supply Arrangement, April 17, 1917, 5 pp.; accompanying note from Hoover of April 14, 1917, 4 pp.

  50. 50.

    Hoover-Wilson Wartime Correspondence … op. cit., p. 22 et seq.

  51. 51.

    For details, see T. Bailey, The Policy … op. cit.

  52. 52.

    AN F 23/157, note from the French Ministry of Supply, London office, list for the period from June to September 1917, 3 pp., more generally see Robert H. Zieger, America’s Great War: World War … op. cit.

  53. 53.

    Executive Order 2679-A: Congressional Lever Act, August 10, 1917.

  54. 54.

    AN F 23/157, The New York Times of August 11, 1917, on the appointment of Hoover and his first energetic statements, 8 pp.

  55. 55.

    AN F 23/157, note from Washington to Jusserand, Minister AE, May 23, 1917.

  56. 56.

    See William Clinton Mullendore, History of the United States Food Administration 1917–1919, Stanford, Stanford University Press and Oxford University Press, 1941 with an introduction by Herbert Hoover.

  57. 57.

    AN F 23/157, note from Washington to Jusserand, Minister AE, January 2, 1918 accompanied by the report of the Department of Agriculture of December 14, 1917, describing the forms and volumes of the mobilization of Americans in the countryside and cities, and note from the French Ministry of Supply, London Office, on America’s Food Effort, February 14, 1918.

  58. 58.

    MAE, 445, no. 100 et seq. letter from Paul Cambon, London, to Paris, presenting Hoover’s proposal, and a copy of Hoover’s telegram.

  59. 59.

    SHD 13 N 110, Financial Cooperation File, note from the Minister of Finance to Tardieu, June 12, 1917.

  60. 60.

    SHD 13 N 65, telegram from Minister of Finance, General Fund Movements, to High Commissioner, Extremely Urgent, November 13, 1917.

  61. 61.

    SHD 13 N 65, telegram from Ministry of Finance, Mouvement général des fonds to High Commissioner Washington, November 29, 1917.

  62. 62.

    Idem., p. 8, about Luquet representing the General Movement of the Funds.

  63. 63.

    SHD 13 N 65, note on CRB Financial Matters, November 26, 1917, 4 pp.

  64. 64.

    MAE, 444, no. 153, Chevrillon, CRB Paris, to Laroche, MAE, March 12, 1917.

  65. 65.

    MAE, 446, no. 89, secret telegram from MAE to de Margerie, London, May 6, 1917.

  66. 66.

    James Arthur Salter, Memoirs of a Public Servant, London, Faber, 1961, especially p. 105 et seq. Entered the Admiralty Administration, Transport and Insurance Department, Lord Arthur Salter (1881–1975). He was appointed Assistant Secretary in 1913. In 1917–1918, he became Director of the Charter Committee of the United States attached to the Allied Maritime Transport Council, AMTC.

  67. 67.

    E. Clémentel, France and economic policy … op. cit.

  68. 68.

    Walter Runcinam (1870–1949) led the Board of Trade from May 1915 to December 1916 in the Asquith Government.

  69. 69.

    SHD 13 N 65, letter from Tardieu, President of the Council, CRB to the Minister of General Supply and Shipping, MAE, April 27, 1917 and note from Foreign Affairs to the Central Office of Missions Abroad, relaying a letter from Baron Gaiffier, Minister of Belgium to Paris, May 27, 1917.

  70. 70.

    MAE, 446, no. 101 and no. 122, long note by W. B. Poland on torpedoes.

  71. 71.

    MAE, 446, no. 151 on Clémentel and Hoover’s interventions with London.

  72. 72.

    SHD 13 N 31, note from MAE to London and Le Havre, June 20, 1917.

  73. 73.

    MAE, 446, no. 6, very confidential telegram from London on the British retentions, the note presents the conditions of torpedoing the vessels chartered by the CRB.

  74. 74.

    SHD 13 N 65, note from High Commissioner of the Republic, London, June 29, 1917, 3 pp.

  75. 75.

    SHD 13 N 65, from MAE, APC, to Ambassador of France in Washington, August 14, 1917.

  76. 76.

    SHD 13 N 65, note from APC to London, Le Havre, and The Hague, relaying information from Jusserand, July 28, 1917.

  77. 77.

    SHD 13 N 65, telegram from de Billy, New York, to French Administrations: Merchant Navy and Blockade, November 17, 1917.

  78. 78.

    E. Clémentel, La politique économique interalliée … op. cit., p. 167. The British archives contain a large number of documents relating to the proceedings of the CRB and Poland in particular with the different administrations and the Admiralty. On July 22, 1917, Poland sent a memorandum of 3 pp. to Vice-Admiral Sims, commander of the US Navy in Europe; a so-called secret copy reached the War Cabinet. Ref. CAB/24/21.

  79. 79.

    E. Clémentel … op. cit., p. 106.

  80. 80.

    MAE, 449, no. 149, telegram from London to de Fleuriau, MAE Paris, August 11, 1917; Lord Cecil is favorable to the French suggestion and MAE, 450, no. 33, telegram from London to de Fleuriau, MAE Paris.

  81. 81.

    SHD 13 N 31, Clémentel Report, Ministry of Commerce, to Mr. Ribot, President of the Council, July 28, 1917, 12 pp. The long note links the conditions of the moment with the position that France was to adopt according to the minister, for the moment of its reconstitution after the fighting.

  82. 82.

    A. Salter, Allied Shipping Control: An Experiment in International Administration, Oxford, 1921. The book belongs to the British series Economic and Social History of the World War. Note that the index has no entry concerning the Netherlands, p. 172.

  83. 83.

    SHD 13 H 65, telegram from Presidency of the Council, French Commissioner New York, 29 April 1918; cable to Hoover on 23 May 1918.

  84. 84.

    J. A. Salter, Allied Shipping … op. cit., p. 173.

  85. 85.

    Idem., p. 237.

  86. 86.

    On the setting up of convoys and their organization, see J. A. Salter, The Allied … op. cit., p. 122 et seq.

  87. 87.

    MAE, 441, no. 13, letter of February 14, 1917 that seems to mention a private secret letter from de Margerie to de Fleuriau.

  88. 88.

    MAE, 446, no. 58 and no. 156 report of the Royal Spanish Legation on the situation of French evacuees in Belgium; no. 225 on the financial transfers made by the CRB to do so; for the financial arrangements to be made with the Belgian Committee, see no. 257, Ministry of Finance to MAE, May 25, 1917.

  89. 89.

    MAE, 447, no. 240, note of May 23, 1917, 3 pp.; MAE, 448, no. 73 on the measures taken for the evacuation and transport of stores in the district of Fourmies confirming the smooth running, May 10, 1917.

  90. 90.

    MAE, 448, no. 85, testimony of Boudot-Lamotte at Vervins, May 22, 1917.

  91. 91.

    MAE, 448, no. 132, report of the Ministry of the Interior, Repatriated Service, Evian July 14, 1917, MAE, 464, 465, 466 the numerous documents relating to the positive assessments of the returnees on the CRB and local committees; MAE, 466, no. 50, the testimony of Pastor Kaltenbach, minister at Saint-Quentin.

  92. 92.

    MAE, 447, no. 166, telegram from Cambon, London to MAE Paris.

  93. 93.

    MAE, 448, no. 8, 5 pp.

  94. 94.

    MAE, 448, telegram from Allizé, The Hague, to MAE, Paris, July 20, 1917.

  95. 95.

    MAE, 449, telegram from Allizé, The Hague, to MAE, Paris, August 2, 1917.

  96. 96.

    MAE, 449, no. 46, translation of the CHN report, Brussels, 24 July 1917.

  97. 97.

    MAE, 449, no. 70, copy of the telegram sent by the parliamentarians, August 7, 1917.

  98. 98.

    MAE, 449, no. 158, from Allizé, The Hague, to Minister, MAE, Paris, August 11, 1917 et seq.

  99. 99.

    MAE, 449, no. 160, meeting held in Brussels on 25 July 1917, Hauptman Count Wengersky, Oberleutnant Pinckler and the directors of the CHN in the presence of Le Blan, Van Bree, Comblin, CANF, and Beatens, delegate of the CRB.

  100. 100.

    MAE, 450, no. 54, secret letter, Cambon, London, to President of the Council, August 20, 1917 and Minutes of the Meeting Held in Brussels on July 25, 1917, on the Draft Workers’ Regulations in the north of France, Director Count Vengersky, CHN.

  101. 101.

    Captain Paul Edouard Beri, of the 55th Artillery Regiment, born June 19, 1889.

  102. 102.

    MAE, 451 (un-numbered), Controller of Various Supplies, September 27, 1917.

  103. 103.

    MAE, 454, no. 133 et seq., confidential letter and documents from Béri to Laroche, November 27, 1917.

  104. 104.

    MAE, 455, no. 71, letter from Northern Cities Supply Committee to Minister of Foreign Affairs, December 6, 1917, 4 pp.

  105. 105.

    MAE, 455, no. 76, note from Captain Béri on the CRB and CH Rotterdam, December 5, 1917, 8 pp.

  106. 106.

    MAE, 455, no. 131, MAE Paris to The Hague, December 9, 1917, produce list including candles, tea towels, matches, lemons, and no. 140, formalization of the agreement and shares quotas.

  107. 107.

    MAE, 455, no. 43, copy of Senator Hayez’s letter to Louis Guerin, December 4, 1917, 3 pp.

  108. 108.

    MAE, 455, no. 263, personal letter from Aimé de Fleuriau to Laroche (?), December 30, 1917, 5 pp.

  109. 109.

    CRB, box no. 12, letter from Chevrillon, CRB Paris, to W. B. Poland, CRB London, January, 3, 1918

  110. 110.

    E. Clémentel, France and politics … op. cit., p. 218, recalls that France had pledged to England nearly 3 billion French gold francs which contributed to maintain the value of the pound within the framework of the gold pool. France bought and paid £35 million and pledged for more than $82 million. For an estimate, in January 1918 the total number of requests for credits was $152 million, of which $6 million was France’s share of the CRB’s expenditure.

  111. 111.

    MAE, 441, no. 89, letter from Chevrillon, CRB, Paris, to M. Laroche, MAE, Paris, February 15, 1917.

  112. 112.

    MAE, 456, no. 3, telegram from MAE Paris to Président du Conseil, Finance, Trade, Blockade.

  113. 113.

    MAE, 456, no. 26, letter from Mouvement general des fonds, Ministry of Finance, to Foreign Affairs, London, January 3, 1918, 3 pp.

  114. 114.

    MAE, 456, no. 101, letter from Chevrillon, CRB, to Laroche, MAE, January 11, 1918.

  115. 115.

    MAE, 456, no. 181, copy of letter from Chevrillon, CRB, Hayez, and Hubert to Clemenceau, January 19, 1918.

  116. 116.

    MAE, 456, no. 206, letter from Finance Minister’s Office to Minister AE, January 20, 1918.

  117. 117.

    MAE, 457, no. 95 et seq., Supply Conference of January 28, 1918, 22 pp., p. 8.

  118. 118.

    For further information on British structures on that date, see John A. Fairlie, British War Cabinets, reprinted from Michigan Law Review, Vol. XVI, no. 7, May 1918.

  119. 119.

    MAE, 457, no. 9, letter from Chevrillon, CRB, to Laroche, MAE, January 21, 1918.

  120. 120.

    MAE, 458, no. 44, note of conversation between Lebrun, Minister of Blockade, and Poland, CRB London, transmitted by Paul Cambon, January 11, 1918.

  121. 121.

    MAE, 458, no. 54, telegram from Avenol, London, to Finance, Paris, February 15, 1918.

  122. 122.

    MAE, 458, no. 91, confidential note from AE, Paris, to Blockade, and various posts, February 18, 1918.

  123. 123.

    MAE, 458, no. 134, telegram from Allizé, The Hague to MAE Paris, February 24, 1918.

  124. 124.

    MAE, 458, no. 120, telegram from Allizé, The Hague to MAE Paris, February 22, 1918.

  125. 125.

    MAE, 458, no. 140, from Movement of the Funds, Finance to Allizé, The Hague, February 24, 1918, and no. 246, telegram from Paul Cambon, London, to MAE, Paris, February 28, 1918.

  126. 126.

    MAE, 459, no. 91, from de Margerie, MAE to London, March 9, 1918.

  127. 127.

    MAE, 460, no. 129, telegram from The Hague to the French and Belgian Governments and CRB London.

  128. 128.

    MAE, 462, no. 124, telegram from Paul Cambon to General Movement of the Funds, Finance, London, April 23, 1918.

  129. 129.

    MAE, 460, no. 142, telegram from MAE Paris to Allizé, The Hague, March 26, 1918.

  130. 130.

    MAE, 459, no. 107, Supply Conference of March 10, 1918, p. 15, 26 pp.

  131. 131.

    Idem., p. 21.

  132. 132.

    MAE, 461, no. 220, from Ministry of Agriculture and Foodstuffs to Minister AE, Paris, April 18, 1918.

  133. 133.

    MAE, 461, no. 192, telegram from Allizé, The Hague, to MAE, Paris, April 12, 1918.

  134. 134.

    MAE, 462, no. 46, telegram from Hoover, Washington to CRB London, April 11, 1918.

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    Clotilde Druelle

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Druelle, C. (2019). Time of Contradictions: Supply in the Heart of the Total War Spring 1917–Fall 1918. In: Feeding Occupied France during World War I. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05563-9_6

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