Abstract
In 325 BC the great Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia travelled in the north of Scandinavia and wrote about the place where the sun never goes to sleep. His stories told about a sublime territory, cold and harsh, inhabited by an isolated, ‘backwards’ people whose lives were shrouded with mystique. Since then, being so far away from civilisation, an imposed and dominating narrative took form in Europe about the region now called Lapland and the North Calotte. The place also became imagined as a cornucopia: a place of immense richness. In many ways, this narrative still lingers today. With examples from the Finnish context, this article argues that the indigenous peoples of the Arctic are, still centuries after the voyages of Pytheas, the object of a European fantasy. They are framed as guardians of the treasure chest that is the Arctic and as an ancient people of ‘nature’ rather than ‘culture’ and thus doomed to the unpolitical. They are all too rarely given agency. Still today, the states do not listen to their voices. However, the Sámi in the Arctic have today carved out another path to political leverage. They have taken part in the global narrative of indigenous resistance against the conquest and oppression by their states. This article presents examples from the Finnish context, where this global discourse has helped Sámi in Finland to reach the global centres of power in New York and Geneva and gain leverage with the state on land rights issues. Adopting this global discourse however, requires indigenous minorities to adopt a specific narrative of ‘minority-ness’; it requires emphasis on unity and homogeneity and a history of violent conquest, even though the Sámi both historically and contemporarily are more complex and diverse than that. The adoption of this discursive strategy exemplifies the dialectic between disaster and triumph that lies in the core interest of this volume; finding the trail of success through a story of disaster. However, one can still ask on whose terms this current trail is cut out and who it will benefit in the end. Is it the states or the indigenous peoples?
Keywords
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Anaya, J. (2011). Report of the special rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples, James Anaya: Extractive industries operating within or near indigenous territories (Report A/HRC/18/35). http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/annual-reports/report-to-the-human-rights-council-a-hrc-18-35-11-july-2011. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Arbo, P., Iversen, A., Knol, M., Ringholm, T., & Sander, G. (2013). Arctic futures: Conceptualizations and images of a changing Arctic. Polar Geography, 36(3), 163–182.
Arctic Centre. (2018). Arctic indigenous peoples. https://www.arcticcentre.org/EN/communications/arcticregion/Arctic-Indigenous-Peoples. Accessed 8 Oct 2018.
Bærenholdt, J. O., & Granås, B. (2008). Places and mobilities beyond the periphery. In J. O. Barenholdt & B. Granas (Eds.), Mobility and place: enacting Northern European peripheries. Cornwall, Ashgate Publishing.
Baglo, C. (2014). Rethinking Sami agency during living exhibitions. In L. Graham & H. G. Penny (Eds.), Performing indigeneity: Global histories and contemporary experiences (pp. 136–168). London: University of Nebraska Press.
Bell, V. (1999). Mimesis as cultural survival: Judith Butler and Anti-Semitism. Theory, Culture & Society, 16(2), 133–161.
Carpelan, C. (1996). Mikä on alkuperämme (What is our origin?). Hiidenkivi, 4(96), 10–14.
Chandler, D. (2014). Beyond neoliberalism: resilience, the new art of governing complexity. Resilience, 2(1), 47–63.
Chevallier, R. (1984). The Greco-Roman conception of the North from Pytheas to Tacitus. Arctic, 37(4), 341–346.
Coombe, R. (2011). Cultural agencies: ‘Constructing’ community subjects and their rights. In M. Biagioli, P. Jaszi, & M. Woodmansee (Eds.), Making and unmaking intellectual property (pp. 79–98). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Corntassel, J. J., & Primeau Hopkins, T. (1995). Indigenous “Sovereignty” and international law: Revised strategies for pursuing “Self-Determination”. Human Rights Quarterly, 17(2), 343–365.
Daes, E.-I. A. (2005). Indigenous peoples’ rights to land and natural resources. In N. Ghanea & A. Xanthaki (Eds.), Minorities, peoples, and self-determination: Essays in honour of Patrick Thornberry (pp. 75–91). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Deschênes, J. (1985). Proposal concerning a definition of the term “minority”. United Nations Document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1985/31. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/88267. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Duffy, C. (2013). The Landscapes of the Sublime, 1700–1830. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Eidheim, H. (1997). Ethno-political development among the Sami after World War II: The invention of selfhood. In H. Gaski (Ed.), Sami culture in a new era: The Norwegian Sami experience (pp. 29–61). Kárášjohka: Davvi Girji OS.
Elenius, L. (2008). Postmodernt identitetsskapande på Nordkalotten (Post-modern identity-construction on the North Calotte). In P. Sköld (Ed.), Människor i Norr: Sámisk forskning på nya vägar (People in the North: Sámi research on new trails) (pp. 509–522). Umeå: Umeå University.
Ethnologue. (2018). Ethnologue. https://www.ethnologue.com. Accessed 26 Aug 2018.
EU Commission and High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. (2016). Joint communication to the European Parliament and the Council: An integrated European Union Policy for the Arctic. http://eeas.europa.eu/archives/docs/arctic_region/docs/160427_joint-communication-an-integrated-european-union-policy-for-the-arctic_en.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Hallikainen, V., Helle, T., Hyppönen, M., Ikonen, A., Jokinen, M., Naskali, A., Tuulentie, S., & Varmola, M. (2008). Luonnon käyttöön perustuvat elinkeinot ja niiden väliset suhteet Ylä-Lapissa (Nature-based livelihoods and relationships between them in Northern Lapland). Metsätieteen aikakauskirja, 3, 191–219.
Huizenga, D. (2018). Articulations of Aboriginal title, indigenous rights, and living customary law in South Africa. Social & Legal Studies, 27(1), 3–24.
Husebekk, A., Andersson, M., & Penttilä, R. E. J. (2015). Growth from the North. How can Norway, Sweden and Finland achieve sustainable growth in the Scandinavian Arctic? Report of an independent expert group. Prime Minister’s Office: Helsinki https://valtioneuvosto.fi/documents/10616/1095776/J0415_Growth+from+the+North_net.pdf/2613b2d6-96f8-4ca1-813a-658eaad7f858. Accessed Oct 8 2018.
Jokinen, M. (2014). Heated and frozen forest conflicts: Cultural sustainability and forest management in arctic Finland. In P. Katila, G. Galloway, W. de Jong, P. Pacheco, & G. Mery (Eds.), Forests under pressure: Local responses to global issues (pp. 381–399). Vienna: International Union of Forest Research Organisations.
Koivurova, T., Masloboev, V., Hossain, K., Nygaard, V., Petrétei, A., & Vinogradova, S. (2015). Legal protection of Sami traditional livelihoods from the adverse impacts of mining: A comparison of the level of protection enjoyed by Sami in their four home states. Arctic Review, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.17585/arctic.v6.76.
Korpijaakko-Labba, K. (1989). Saamelaisten oikeusasemasta Ruotsi-Suomessa: oikeushistoriallinen tutkimus Länsi-Pohjan Lapin maankäyttöoloista ja-oikeuksista ennen 1700-luvun puoliväliä (On the legal status of Sámi in Sweden-Finland: a legal history study of land use and land rights in Länsi-Pohja in Lapland before mid 18th century), Helsinki: Lakimiesliiton kustannus.
Koskeniemi, M. (2011). Human rights, politics, and love. In M. Koskeniemi (Ed.), The politics of international law (pp. 153–168). Oxford: Hart Publishing.
Lehtola, V. (2012). Saamelaiset suomalaiset: Kohtaamisia 1896–1953 (Sámi Finns: Encounters 1896–1953). Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.
Lipponen, P. (2015). A strategic vision for the North – Finland’s prospects for economic growth in the Arctic region. https://ek.fi/wp-content/uploads/A-Strategic-Vision-for-the-North.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
McPhail, C. (2014). Pytheas of Massalia’s route of travel. Phoenix, 68(3/4), 247–257.
Metsähallitus. (2013). Toimintamalli Akwé: Kon- ohjeiden soveltamisesta Metsähallituksessa (Operations model for the implementation of the Akwé:Kon guidelines in Metsähallitus). MH 4975/2013/00.01. https://api.hankeikkuna.fi/asiakirjat/ed23c4c1-2313-439f-aa07-3dc647d25917/f7fd8469-1a9d-4bd0-9c26-c6557d16b570/KIRJE_20131127093251.pdf. Accessed 13 Sept 2018.
Mining Act. (621/2011). https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/2011/en20110621.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Mustonen, K., Mustonen, T., Aikio, A., & Aikio, P. (2010). Drowning reindeer, drowning Homes: Indigenous Sámi and hydroelectricity development in Sompio, Finland. Vaasa: Snowchange.
Nansen, F. (2012). In Northern Mists: Arctic exploration in early times. London: Ballantyne Press.
Nickul, K. (1984). Onko saamelaisilla tulevaisuutta (Do Sámi have a future?). In J. Helander, M. Mykkänen, E. Nickul, T. Salo, & L. Sammallahti (Eds.), Bálggis. Polku. Sámi Čuvgehussearvi 1932–1982 Lapin Sivistysseura (pp. 45–50). Jyväskylä: Gummerous.
Niezen, R. (2003). The origins of indigenism: Human rights and the politics of identity. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Overland, I., & Berg-Nordlie, M. (2012). Bridging divides ethno-political leadership among the Russian Sámi. Oxford: Berghahn Publisher.
Pääkkönen, E. (2008). Saamelainen etnisyys ja pohjoinen paikallisuus: Saamelaisten etninen mobilisaatio ja paikallisperustainen vastaliike (Sámi ethnicity and northern localness, the ethnic mobilisation of Sámi and local movements of resistance). Rovaniemi: Laepin yliopistokustannus.
Pentikäinen, J. (1995). Saamelaiset: Pohjoisen kansan mytologia (Sámi: The mythology of the people of the North), Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura.
Reimerson, E. (2013). Between nature and culture: Exploring space for indigenous agency in the convention on biological diversity. Environmental Politics, 22(6), 992–1009.
Reindeer Husbandry Act. (848/1990). https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1990/en19900848_20000054.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Revelin, F. (2013). Ecotourism and extraction in Sámi lands: Contradictions and continuities. In B. Büscher & V. Davidov (Eds.), The ecotourism and extraction Nexus: Rural realities and political economies of (Un) comfortable bedfellows (pp. 193–214). Oxon: Routledge.
Ridanpää, J. (2007). Laughing at northernness: Postcolonialism and metafictive irony in the imaginative geography. Social & Cultural Geography, 8, 907–928.
Ridanpää, J. (2015). Singing acts’ from the deep North: critical perspectives on northern exotics, contemporary ethnic music and language preservation in Sámi communities. Journal for Cultural Research, 20(1), 17–30.
Ryall, A., Schimanski, J., & Wærp, H. H. (2010). Arctic discourses: An introduction. In A. Ryall, J. Schimanski, & H. H. Wærp (Eds.), Arctic discourses (pp. ix–xxiii). Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism: Western conceptions of the orient. London: Routledge.
Sámi Parliament. (2006). Saamelaisten kestävän kehityksen ohjelma (The Sámi Program for Sustainable Development). http://www.ym.fi/download/noname/%7B463A8622-2BC0-43AD-AE4D-C0F70B3C2F85%7D/27643. Accessed 8 Oct 2018.
Saul, B. (2016). Indigenous peoples human rights: International and regional jurisprudence. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
Schanche, A. (2001). Innledning. Naturresurser og miljöverider I samiske områder: forvaltnings- og forskningutfordringer (Introduction: Natural resources and environmental values in Sámi territories: challenges in administration and research). Diedut, (2), 3–19.
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (2004). Akwé: Kon. Voluntary guidelines for the conduct of cultural, environmental and social impact assessments regarding developments proposed to take place on, or which are likely to impact on, sacred sites and on lands and waters traditionally occupied or used by indigenous and local communities. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/akwe-brochure-en.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Semb, A. J. (2001). How norms affect policy – The case of Sami policy in Norway. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 8(2–3), 177–222.
Stammler, F., & Ivanova, A. (2016). Confrontation, coexistence or co-ignorance? Negotiating human-resource relations in two Russian regions. The Extractive Industries and Society, 3(1), 60–72.
Statistics Finland. (2018). Labour force survey, August 2018. Accessible at https://www.stat.fi/til/tym_en.html [last visited September 15, 2018].
Steinberg, P. E., Tasch, J., & Gerhardt, H. (Eds.). (2015). Contesting the Arctic: Politics and imaginaries in the circumpolar North. London: I.B. Tauris.
Toivanen, R. (2001). Minority rights and minority identities-Sámi in Finland and Sorbs in Germany. Finnish Yearbook of Population Research, 37, 83–102.
Toivanen, R. (2003). The Sámi people and Nordic civil society. In N. Götz & J. Hackmann (Eds.), Civil society in the Baltic Sea region (pp. 205–216). Aldershot: Ashgate.
Toivanen, R. (2004). Anthropology and the paradox of rights in a multicultural context. In V. Puuronen, A. Häkkinen, A. Pylkkänen, T. Sandlund, & R. Toivanen (Eds.), New challenges for the welfare society (pp. 107–123). Joensuu: University of Joensuu & Karelian Institute.
Toivanen, R. (2007). Linguistic diversity and the paradox of rights discourse. In D. Castiglione & C. Longman (Eds.), The language question in Europe and diverse societies – Political, legal and social perspectives (Onati series on law and society) (pp. 101–121). Oxford: Hart Publishing.
Toivanen, R. (2016). Localising the global in the superdiverse municipalities of the Arctic: The case of Inari. In R. Toivanen & J. Saarikivi (Eds.), Linguistic genocide or superdiversity?: New and old language diversities (pp. 221–247). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
United Nations. (1994). Länsman et al. v. Finland, Communication No. 511/1992. United Nations Document CCPR/C/52/D/511/1992 (1994). https://www.escr-net.org/sites/default/files/HR%27s_Committee_Decision_0.html. Accessed 8 Oct 2018.
United Nations. (2009). State of the world’s indigenous peoples, New York: United Nations Publications.
United Nations. (2011). Guiding principles on business and human rights: Implementing the United Nations ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy’ framework. The Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding Principles in its resolution 17/4 of 16 June 2011. United Nations document HR/PUB/11/04. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/GuidingPrinciplesBusinessHR_EN.pdf. Accessed 15 Oct 2018.
Valkonen, J. (2003). Lapin luontopolitiikka: Analyysi vuosien 1946–2000 julkisesta keskustelusta (The politics of nature in Lapland: An analysis of the public discussion during the years 1946–2000), Tampere: Tampereen yliopisto.
Valkonen, J., & Valkonen, S. (2014). Contesting the nature relations of Sámi culture. Acta Borealia, 31(1), 25–40.
Wilson, E., & Stammler, F. (2016). Beyond extractivism and alternative cosmologies: Arctic communities and extractive industries in uncertain times. The Extractive Industries and Society, 3(1), 1–8.
Ympäristöministeriö. (2011). Akwé: Kon –ohjeet (Akwé:Kon guidelines). http://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/41525/OH1_2011_Akwe_Kon_-ohjeet.pdf?sequence=2. Accessed 8 Oct 2018.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Academy of Finland, Centre of Excellence in Law, Identity and the European Narratives, decision no 1312431.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Toivanen, R. (2019). European Fantasy of the Arctic Region and the Rise of Indigenous Sámi Voices in the Global Arena. In: Sellheim, N., Zaika, Y., Kelman, I. (eds) Arctic Triumph. Springer Polar Sciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05523-3_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05523-3_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-05522-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-05523-3
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)